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LEHIGH 



CONCRETE 

for TOWN and 

COUNTRY 




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CONCRETE 

for TOWN and 
COUNTRY 



A SERVICE BOOK OF 
INFORMATION FOR 
THOSE INTERESTED 
IN PERMANENT IM- 
PROVEMENT mTOWN 
AND COUNTRY 




THE NATIONAL CEMENT 



'Published by 

LEHIGH PORTLAND 
CEMENT COMPANY 

ALLENTOWN.PA. CHICAGO.ILL. SPOKANE ,"WN. 



Copyright, IQ22, Lehigh Portland Cement Co. 



.V 



•,<2- 




Part one is a collection of photographs of actual uses of concrete, 
shows the possibilities of concrete in town and country- 



It 



Part two supplies practical information on the uses of concrete. By 
details and suggestion it gives the prospective builder a clear conception 
of good practice. Included with these details are tables which show the 
materials necessary. Quantity of cement is often referred to in barrels. 
As four sacks make one barrel, these two designations should not be 
confused. Five barrels of cement equal twenty sacks. Sand and stone 
are usually sold by the ton. The references are in cubic yards due to 
the variation in weights of different aggregates. 

Part three explains the fundamental principles of concrete and the 
proper use of cement. Tables have been included for convenience and the 
spirit of Lehigh Service has been incorporated with the idea of guiding 
to best results the users of Lehigh — the National Cement. 

LEHIGH 

THE NATIONAL CEMENT 



PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES 

OF AMERICA BY 
WM. F. FELL CO.. PHILADELPHIA 



JUL "6 1922 

©CU679517 



"Foreword 



THIS country was not the first to know the merits of concrete 
construction nor to use concrete in a modern way. But in char- 
acteristically American fashion we have advanced beyond all other 
nations of the world in the production of cement and its use in 
the form of concrete. In the face of this fact, however, there are 
many who do not yet realize what a valuable contribution concrete 
has made to the resources of this country and the still greater benefits that are 
to come with its further development. 

The wide range of usefulness and adaptability of concrete can best be vis- 
ualized by illustrations. That is why part of this book is largely a picture story, 
and for the same reason views have been liberally used throughout. Nor are 
these pictures merely dreams of what can be made of concrete — they are made 
from actual photographs of concrete work which has been done. 

Concrete has been a great medium for efficiency in city, town, and country. 
Simplicity of use, wide-spread availability of materials, and comparatively low cost 
are its principal attractions. 

Concrete is as nearly permanent as a building material can be. 

Concrete provides the highest possible degree of protection against fire. 

Firesafeness, health, comfort, economy, security, are all related to each one's 
personal welfare and interest. 

The fire menace of the automobile is reduced to a minimum if the machine is 
housed in a concrete garage. 

Concrete has maintenance built into it. 

Concrete does not have to be repaired, rebuilt, or painted. 

Concrete represents in the truest sense of the word an investment instead of an 
expense in building construction. 

In town and country, in all the varied lines of American industry, concrete 
has almost countless uses. 

To be practical a home must be a house that will endure, that can be kept 
warm in winter, comfortably cool in summer, dry in all weather. 

The manufacturing plant requires structures that will safeguard its workmen; 
that will be free from excessive vibration; that will provide light, healthful, com- 
fortable surroundings. 

Schools, hospitals, hotels, apartments, office buildings — any structures designed 
to accommodate great numbers of people, must be safeguarded against fire or 
other catastrophe. 

Industrial buildings must not only represent security of investment but free- 
dom from burdensome maintenance cost. 

Permanent highways of concrete reduce distance as expressed in time so that 
outlying rural communities are in reality a part of the city or town. 

Mining operations are made safe by the use of pre-cast concrete "timbers." 

Railroad bridges are being made better, stronger, safer, and more enduring by 
the use of concrete. 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



Millions of acres of fertile land too wet to farm are being brought into produc- 
tiveness by drainage through the medium of concrete tile. 

Arid sections of the west are being reclaimed through irrigation. Huge dams 
and concrete-lined canals supply the water that gives these lands the magic touch 
of fertility. 

Cows will produce better milk if they are housed in clean, comfortable, sanitary 
quarters such as concrete provides. 

In the barnyard a clean concrete pavement for the animals to walk upon and 
feed from, and a clean, everlasting concrete watering trough, are simple yet 
typical examples of concrete's valuable use. 

As conservers of natural resources, concrete barn and stable floors and manure 
pits represent trifling cost by comparison with the resulting savings. 

The concrete silo makes green fields last twelve months in the year for the dairy 
farmer. 

Who would want to return to the old town of splintering wooden sidewalks com- 
pared with the old town made new by concrete walks, drives, streets, and alleys? 

What would our cities be today without the modern sewer systems of concrete 
construction, the gigantic concrete-lined reservoirs that insure pure and depend- 
able water supply, the concrete improvements in parks and public recreation 
places — swimming pools, pavilions, tennis courts? 

This book makes it clear that concrete making is not surrounded with burden- 
some requirements. When one realizes that in hundreds of manual training 
schools in the United States boys are engaging in various kinds of concrete con- 
struction as a vocational exercise, it is evident that no unusual experience is 
required to be a successful home worker in concrete. Beyond a certain point 
there must be applied a knowledge of engineering principles. Work of this 
type can be successfully done only by specialists in concrete construction. The 
fact remains, however, that any person of average intelligence who will follow 
simple directions can do quite pretentious work with concrete. 

LEHIGH PORTLAND CEMENT COMPANY 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




, . jv....-_ ... 



The Story of Lehigh Cement 



THERE is no more fascinating nor extra- 
ordinary romance of fact and human 
achievement in the whole wonderful history of 
modern industry than ' ' The Story of Cement." 
The stupendous battle which man is waging 
against the mighty forces of nature can be 
well realized in the amazing story of the 
combination of science, labor, technical skill, 
and vast financial resources necessary to the 
manufacture of Portland cement. 

Space will permit of but the briefest telling 
of this wonderful story. So intensely inter- 
esting is it in every particular that to send 
forth this comprehensive and practical volume 
on the manifold uses of cement without at least 
recounting the major steps in the process of 
manufacture would bea most flagrant omission. 

"The Story of Cement" is the story of a 
modern miracle — the miracle of pouring a 
mountain through a hole -o'Too' oi an ' ncri 
square. Impossible, you say? Then follow us 
but a few minutes and see with your own eyes 
this miracle-like achievement. 

Before us looms a mountainside of solid 
rock, tremendous in its ruggedness. It is of 
two kinds — limestone and cement rock — the 
basic ingredients from which cement is made. 

Into this rock giant drills cut deep cylin- 



drical holes. These holes are packed with 
dynamite. When the series of holes has been 
charged and the last bit of wiring connected, 
the workmen hurry to places of safety. Then 
an electric button is pressed. There is a 
terrific explosion and the mountainside is torn 
and rent as by a violent convulsion. 

When it is realized that about 600 pounds of 
this rock are required to make one barrel of 
cement, and that it is a small mill that does 
not have a daily production capacity of 5000 
barrels, we begin to appreciate something of 
the magnitude of these blasting operations. 

Before we go further, stop to consider how 
this great bulk of material is kept uniform, 
how the inequalities in the products of mother 
earth are compensated, how a finished product 
of known value results. This control must be 
exact without in any way curtailing the im- 
mense tonnage of production , and the elements 
entering into the manufacture must be defined 
to the minutest degree. 

The laboratories are the brain of this great 
industry, and every step in the process is 
directed by the chemists, who must analyze the 
material from the core of the first diamond 
drill to the sample of cement taken from the 
car which has been shipped. 




The physical laboratory 



The chemical laboratory 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




The quarry 



Huge steam shovels gather the quarried 
rock, — both limestone and cement rock,— load- 
ing it into cars which run by gravity to the 
base of the incline, there to be hauled to the 
top of the crusher house. 

The jaws of the monster gyratory crusher 
reduce the boulders to a size that will pass 
a 6-inch ring and the battery of secondary 
crushers breaks it down to pass a 2-inch ring. 

Then comes the hammer mill, running at 
1100 revolutions a minute, granulating the 
stone and passing it on to the driers. Excess 
moisture must be evaporated from the stone to 
permit fine grinding, and these great revolving 
cylinders, heated to 1000 degrees F., deliver 
it absolutely dry. 

Twenty thousand ton storage bins then keep 
the stone, awaiting the results of the chemists' 

tests. According 
to the labora- 
tory's in- 
struc- 




tions as to the proportions in which the two 
rocks are to be mixed, the material is delivered 
to the kominuter or ball mill. 

Picture a battery of cylinders, each 6 feet 
in diameter and 9 feet long, turning at about 
25 revolutions a minute, each hurling over its 
lining of offset steel baffle plates 6000 pounds 
of chilled steel balls 5 inches in diameter, 
crushing the stone to powder. 

The tube mill reduces the material so that 
80% of it will pass a 200-mesh sieve. A 200- 
mesh sieve has 40,000 holes to the square inch. 
Thus is achieved the miracleof passinga moun- 
tain through a hole totttto of an inch square. 

Next come immense cylindrical kilns 8 feet 
in diameter and 125 feet long, which revolve 
slowly. These gigantic cylinders are set on a 
slight incline. Into the upper end is fed the 
powdered stone which, through the revolving 
motion, slowly works its way toward the lower 
end of the kiln, where occurs a most interesting 
and important process. 

Into this lower end, forced by air pressure, is 
fed a stream of finely powdered soft coal. In a 
nearby building this coal is dried and passed 
through a battery of mills, which pul- 
verize it so that it can be forced 
by air pressure into the kilns, 
there to produce the in- 
tense heat necessary 
for calcination or 
burning. 



The kilns 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




The coolers 



About 100 pounds of coal are required in 
the kiln to burn enough material to make one 
barrel of cement, and as a single kiln can turn 
out 600 barrels in twenty-four hours and the 
kilns are usually operated in batteries of eight 
or ten, the vital importance of coal in the ce- 
ment industry will be realized. 

Water boils at 212 degrees F. It takes 
about 3,000 degrees to make cement. 

Slowly the raw powdered stone works its 
way toward the burning zone, and just as the 
stone is about to become a molten lava it 
drops from the kiln into a chilling chamber, 
where it changes from a white-hot mass to a 
hard black clinker. 

The coolers are pictured, for they are intri- 
cate to describe and their part too important 
to overlook. 

After it is cold to the core the clinker is 
weighed and raw gypsum is added to regulate 
the set or hardening of the finished product. 

Then starts another round of crushing, pul- 
verizing, and grinding through Griffin mills and 
tube mills, reducing the clinker so that 80% 
will pass through a 200-mesh sieve. This pow- 
der is Portland cement. 

The cement is conveyed to bins, where it is 
held subject to the results of the chemical and 
physical tests carried on for at least 28 days. 
With the great daily output piling up, 
vast storage capacity is 
necessary. At some 
mills storage ^-=r<~r^* 



houses accommodate 700,000 barrels, or 2,800,- 
000 sacks, for Portland cement is sold in sacks 
although priced by the barrel. 

The sacks are filled on machines that auto- 
matically weigh the contents so that each 
package is sure to contain 94 pounds of ce- 
ment. From the bagging machines belt con- 
veyors carry the filled sacks direct to the cars. 

No reference has been made to the immense 
power plant necessary to operate the heavy 
machinery needed to handle so refractory a 
material, but when it is remembered that a 
5,000 barrel mill requires engines to produce 
5,000 horse-power, some idea of the immensity 
of this plant can be formed. 

Tons of blasting powder — hundreds of tons 
of coal — thousands of tons of rock — millions of 
sacks — extensive buildings — hundreds of men 
and tremendous power are needed to operate a 
cement mill. Machine shop and store-rooms 
— belt and electrical shop — carpenters — fore- 
men — superintendents — chemists and engi- 
neers — a virtual city in itself, representing 
many professions and trades all doing their 
part in the production of this wonderful 
modern building material — 
Portland cement. 




Tube mill 



Griffin mills 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




Concrete Garages 



"\X7TTH approximately ten million auto- 
* * mobiles and motor trucks in the country, 
the problem of housing them is important. 
Gasoline and the oils required to operate a 
car are highly inflammable and fire risks must 
be reduced by fire-safe construction. Concrete 
is the most adaptable building material for 
garage construction, insuring safety as well as 



lending itself readily to design in harmony 
with the architecture of the residence. 

Concrete garages may be monolithic, con- 
crete block, or stucco. Attention is called to 
the concrete driveways, washing floor, walks, 
and concrete stairways. 

Specifications as to materials for a complete 
concrete garage are found on pages 97 to 99. 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 





Garage Floors and 
Drives 

A GARAGE floor made of concrete is easy 
to keep clean and materially reduces the 
fire hazard from dropping oils and greases. 
The illustration above shows a floor which was 
built prior to the erection of the superstruc- 
ture. 

Driveways sometimes terminate in a wash- 
ing floor directly in front of the garage, and 
are a valuable adjunct. Two parallel paved 
strips, each of a sufficient width to allow 
plenty of room for the car, are often used as a 
means of access to keep traffic from the lawn. 
This is an economical method of constructing 
an approach and is also serviceable. 

Pages 64 to 68, under " Floors, Walks, and 
Pavements," give working details. 




CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



Foundations and Walls 



NO OTHER material is so extensively used 
for foundations as is concrete. It may be 
in the form of either monolithic construction 
or concrete block. Monolithic concrete is most 
adaptable for massive and irregular founda- 
tions. This does not mean, however, that con- 
crete blocks are lacking in a wide range of 
adaptability. They are particularly suited to 
light foundation work, such as is required for 



houses, barns, and other town and country 
structures, because form work is unnecessary. 
When the simple principles of concrete 
practice outlined under "Fundamental Princi- 
ples," pages 153 to 185, have been observed, 
building a concrete foundation is one of the 
easiest types of construction work, requiring 
little cutting of lumber and being within the 
range of any one's ability. 




10 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




THE SIMPLICITY with which the minor 
classes of construction can be built is evi- 
denced by the work which is being done by 
students the country over. Concrete sidewalks 
have proved their usefulness from the stand- 
points of economy in first cost, low maintenance, 
and qualities of safety of travel, cleanliness, and 
good appearance. The construction of both one- 
and two-course sidewalks is explained on pages 
64 to 68. 




CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



11 




12 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




Steps and Stairways 

CONCRETE steps are safe as well as clean, permanent, and of good 
appearance. A variety of designs to which concrete is adaptable in 
the construction of steps and stairways are illustrated. For long flights of 
terrace steps it is very important to provide a solid foundation, thus avoid- 
ing the cracking of the concrete. Except for intricate types, any one handy 
with tools can build the necessary forms shown on page 69. 




CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



13 




Conxrete lends itself admirably to 
the construction of permanent hatch- 
ways. The principles of construction 
are practically the same as those used 
for other stairways shown and foun- 
dations described on pages 57 to 62. 









14 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




Fence and Gate Posts 

THE unpleasant job of renewing rolled fence posts year after year 
can be avoided. Concrete fence and gate posts are permanent. 
They are inexpensive and many styles can be built during spare time 
in sheltered places when weather conditions prohibit out-of-door work. 
Information on post forms and construction will be found under 
"Concrete Products," pages 76 to 92. 














■J 




CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



15 




Concrete Enclosure Walls 

/CONCRETE is used for a great variety of crete in this particular field are well illus- 

^-^ retaining walls, and these may be plain trated. Drawings and descriptions found on 

and simple, or may be as elaborate as taste pages 88 to 92 are most complete, and can be 

and local conditions justify. In some of these used to great advantage in constructing this 

examples the architectural possibilities of con- class of work. 



16 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




Bubbling Fountains 

\ CONCRETE bubbling fountain is a sanitary improvement, 
■L *- is inexpensive and attractive. It is adaptable for public 
parks, country clubs, seaside resorts, large farms, and even on the 
small home grounds. The exact size and shape depend upon the 
individual taste, and with a certain amount of care very attrac- 
tive designs can be accomplished. 





CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



17 





Concrete Standards 



/^ONCRETE posts are superseding old 
^^ wooden types which have to be re- 
placed due to deterioration and cost of 
upkeep. Besides being ornamental, they 
are very serviceable, and are used for 
many purposes other than strictly lighting 
standards. Illustrated among this group 
is one serving as a street sign post. This 
type is being used to great advantage 
in the more progressive cities and towns. 
The type of construction is practically 
the same as that found on pages 84 to 92. 



18 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 






Civic Improvements 

TJECREATION centers and public 
-*-V parks are places of comfort, beauty, 
and happiness. To make them permanent 
as well as ornamental they should be con- 
structed of concrete. No other material 
lends itself so readily to the diversity of 
designs. It tends to eliminate mainte- 
nance expense and keeps within bounds 
the cost of construction. Whether it be 
a bandstand, a pavilion, a lily-pond, or 
any other type of structure found in the 
garden, the park, or the entranceway, 
attractive designs can be economically 
developed by the use of concrete. See 
pages 76 to 92, under "Concrete Prod- 
ucts," for designs, and also pages 153 to 
185 for "Fundamental Principles," which 
will give the necessary information. 




CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



19 




The Pergola 

IN PRIVATE as well as public gardens 
the pergola as a decoration is becom- 
ing more popular. Covered with vines and 
flowers, new life and beauty are given to 
what may have been a barren spot. Con- 
crete in this construction has proved its 
worth. The possibility of conforming 
with adjacent architectural design, as well 
as the selection of a great variety of sur- 
face treatments, is made possible with this 
material, while permanent and beautiful 
results can be attained. 

The section on "Concrete Products," 
pages 76 to 92, as well as pages 153 to 
185, on the "Fundamental Principles," 
will be found of material assistance in 
planning or constructing any practical 
pergola design. 






20 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




Cement in House Building 



' I ^HE variety of ways in which cement for 
-■- concrete may be used — monolithic, block, 
brick, stucco, and structural tile — give the 
architect all necessary latitude to produce any 
design or any type of architecture to which 
the material is suited. In addition to this the 
inherent qualities of concrete construction 
place this material in a class by itself because 
it is possessed of some individual and distinc- 
tive merits. Permanence means freedom from 
expensive upkeep — fireproofness means low 
insurance cost as well as safety. Both of these 
qualities are dominant in concrete. 

In order to appreciate the deficiencies of 
most houses in the country today we must 
remember that fire-proof construction has been 
the exception rather than the rule. Founda- 
tions are as nearly permanent as can be, yet the 
remainder of the structure is usually a firetrap. 

Numerous systems of concrete house con- 
struction, with particular reference to the use 
of monolithic concrete, have been developed. 



The efforts in all cases have generally been 
directed toward perfecting a system of forms. 
These should have a wide range of adaptability 
that will permit rapid assembling and dismant- 
ling, facilitating speed of construction, and pro- 
viding for many variations in exterior appear- 
ance. 

New types of concrete block have been de- 
veloped and older types improved. The early 
rock-faced concrete block has gone into the 
discard. Architects recognized it for what it 
really was — a base attempt to imitate natural 
stone. Modern concrete building block and 
concrete brick are distinctive products and 
rival, and in many cases excel, the finest cut 
stone. 

This discussion of concrete for houses has 
not been presented with the expectation that 
the home worker will build his home of con- 
crete by his own labor, but rather to encourage 
careful comparison of concrete with all other 
materials so that he can learn its advantages. 




CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



21 



A CONCRETE 

block residence 
finished with 
architectural 
trimstone. 




1 he monolithic 
house provided 
with an asbestos 
cement shingle 
roof represents 
the last word in 
modern home 
construction. 



22 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




.Porch posts, porches, and steps are permanent if built of con- 
crete. Monolithic or block, columns, spindles, or similar precast 
units are attractive, economical, and everlasting. 




CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



23 




Land Drainage 

LAND drainage has long 
-* been most effectively ac- 
complished through the use 
of concrete tile. They are 
permanent, true to shape, 
therefore easy to lay, not 
subject to any disintegration 
from frost action, and pro- 
vide a flow-line that is not 
likely to become obstructed. 
Further description may be 
found on pages 76 to 83. 



Concrete Rollers 





TJESIDES the money saved, a certain plea- 
■*-* sure is derived from the use of something 
that we have made ourselves. A roller is 



easy to make, practical to use, and will last a 
lifetime. Information on posts, pages 84 to 92, 
will help you make a roller. 



24 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




Well Covers and Linings 

A CONCRETE well lining and cover will 
■*- *■ permanently insure against contamina- 
tion by surface drainage. This simple safe- 
guard to health should not be neglected where 
a well is the source of domestic water supply. 
The well with the wooden platform is never 
free from danger of contamination and should 
be replaced by following the suggestions on 
pages 122 and 123. 




SMALL concrete containers are of con- 
siderable advantage to the present- 
day farmer. 

Such containers are fire-proof and 
leak-proof, and can be easily constructed. 
Cleanly and sanitary, they are especially 
valuable where there is an automobile 
or a tractor for the storage of oils and 
gasoline. 

The concrete cooker shown at the left 
was made by setting an iron kettle in 
concrete and building a stove compart- 
ment beneath. 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



25 




old-fashioned wooden walks and walls, 
and is being used in the construction of 
the interior equipment. 

Temperature control is aided, due to 
the insulating qualities of concrete, and 
the wooden greenhouse is becoming obso- 
lete, giving way to the modern concrete 
structure. 



The Greenhouse 

PAGES 64 to 68, describing the con- 
struction of walks, and pages 57 to 62, 
on foundations and walls, give the funda- 
mentals for successful greenhouse con- 
struction. Wooden buildings cannot 
last in the moisture-laden atmosphere of 
the greenhouse. Concrete is replacing 




Hotbeds and Cold-Frames 



AN EASY way to make the home garden last 
■*- *• practically twelve months a year is to 
have a hotbed or a cold-frame. Another use 
is in advancing early spring plants. The 
difference in name is merely to indicate the 
manner in which it is operated. The average 
hotbed built of lumber or logs is a temporary 
structure, due to rapid decay. After a year 



or two it has to be rebuilt at considerable 
cost of time and material. Concrete, not 
being subject to rot or other depreciation, pre- 
vents such waste of labor and material. Once 
built it is always built. 

The construction principles, with drawing 
and materials required, are found on pages 72 
and 73, under "Hotbeds and Cold-Frames. " 



26 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




Swimming Pools 

/^ONCRETE sand-boxes for the children to play in, wading-pools for them 
^^ to paddle in, and swimming pools are desirable adjuncts of public parks 
and playgrounds, as well as of the country estate and country club. The 
construction of these outdoor amusement troughs is practically the same as 
for any concrete trough. Plans are shown on page 100. The lily pond is 
practically identical in construction with that of the swimming pool. 




CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



27 





Concrete Barns 



THE central structure of every farm is the 
barn. Whether it be for dairy cattle, to 
house live stock, or a general purpose barn, its 
importance among the farm structures war- 
rants careful planning and the very best con- 
struction. Safe against fire, wind, and the 
elements, a concrete barn stands as a pro- 
tection against a total loss of the harvest, 
the destruction of the dairy herd or the other 
live stock. By eliminating breeding-places 
it serves as a protection against marauding 
rodents. It keeps out the rat. It reduces the 
labor necessary to the operation of a farm, 



and makes possible a building of convenience 
and beauty. Beyond all, it is permanent. 

The year's financial investment is safe- 
guarded so thoroughly that everywhere more 
attention is being paid to the use of concrete 
in barn construction. A detailed design with 
more general information will be found on pages 
146 and 147. The sections on "Foundations 
and Walls," pages 57 to 62, "Floors, Walks, 
and Pavements," pages 64 to 68, "Roofs," 
pages 106 and 107, as well as the general in- 
formation under "Fundamental Principles," 
pages 153 to 185, will prove interesting reading. 




28 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



1 he variety of concrete barns 
shown on this and the follow- 
ing pages makes comment on 
the adaptability of concrete 
for barn construction super- 
fluous. The lower illustration, 
with the long low building 
and the two immense mono- 
lithic silos, is a reinforced 
concrete dairy barn. Details 
of concrete barns are found on 
pages 145 to 147. 




CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



29 








30 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




1 HE information about concrete barns, as 
shown on pages 145 to 147, proves that con- 
crete can be used for constructing barns of all 
types and sizes. The circular barn, whether 
built monolithic or of concrete block, is no 
longer a novelty. Suggestions for a circular 
barn are shown on pages 146 and 147. 




CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



31 



* 








1 here is no limit to the diversified uses of concrete on the farm. 
Lehigh cement in construction of farm buildings and equipment 
has proved an investment rather than an expense. 




32 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




Barn Approaches 

A CONCRETE approach to the barn 
entrance will lighten the traction 
effort for teams as well as for motor 
vehicles. It will eliminate the bumps 
and strains of the makeshift approach 
and make possible the hauling of larger 
loads with less effort. Frequently the 
space under such approaches has been 



used as a storage place for fruit 
or vegetables or for a milk 
or a dairy house. Such space 
could also be employed for 
ice storage. Information in 
Part Two will prove helpful 
if advantage is to be taken of 
this space. 

On page 70 is a practical 
working drawing showing the 
construction of a barn ap- 
proach and giving informa- 
tion for its erection. 



Manure Pits 



A/TANUFACTURED fertilizers have their 
-f * A place in farming, but soil fertility can be 
permanently maintained only by proper use of 
stable manure. Growing crops extract from 
the soil elements necessary to plant growth. 
Unless these elements are kept in proper balance 
in the soil crop yields are continually reduced. 



Millions of dollars' worth of possible soil 
fertility are lost because of the careless way in 
which manure is handled on the majority of 
farms. The concrete manure pit is one of 
many concrete structures that pays for itself 
in a short time. Pages 74 and 75 show work- 
ing details of construction. 




CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



33 




rdow not to care for stable 
manure is shown in the il- 
lustration directly above. 
This attempt at providing 
a manure pit is simply a 
waste of time and effort. 
The other illustrations 
show concrete structures of 
both the roofed and the 
open type. Either is very 
effective in the conserva- 
tion of fertilizing elements. 




34 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




Concrete in the Barn 



THE safety of your stock demands concrete 
housing. One of the most important 
parts of this class of construction is the sani- 
tary barn floor. To prevent loss by fire, 
disease, and accident, no other material lends 
itself so readily to these requirements as does 
concrete. 

The benefits from these floors can be aug- 
mented by the use of this same material for 
mangers, gutters, troughs, and grain-bins. A 
concrete floor for the hay-loft serves both as a 



fire barrier and as a protection against rats. 
The use of concrete for the complete construc- 
tion and equipment of the barn for housing 
all stock is a paying investment, for not alone 
does it protect the stock, but it lightens the 
labor necessary in the proper care of the 
animals. 

Part Two contains numerous drawings for 
all types of barn construction, and Part Three 
gives the necessary fundamental principles in- 
volved in doing this class of work. 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



35 




Sanitation in the dairy barn and 
in other stock quarters is best se- 
cured by concrete floors, mangers, 
alleyways, and gutters. 




36 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




Hog Raising 



PROFITS from hog raising are, to a great extent, dependent on the 
housing provided. Sanitation is the prime essential. Clean, health- 
ful, sanitary quarters are absolutely necessary if the raising of hogs is to 
be made an asset instead of a liability. 

Without warm quarters young pigs cannot be expected to develop 
properly. They must be in the best condition for early marketing to 
bring maximum profits. This can be attained only with well-ventilated, 
dry pens designed to provide plenty of sunlight and built so that there 
will be no cracks or crevices in which filth might lodge. 

Concrete is the only material that will economically meet all these 
requirements. Further information on the advantages of sanitary quar- 
ters for hogs, with suggestions for building, is shown on pages 126 to 130. 




CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



37 




r 1 eeding floors, wallows, and troughs 
are all sanitary and permanent when 
built of concrete. 




38 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 





Modern Dairying 

MODERN dairying demands con- 
crete construction in all the nec- 
essary equipment, whether it be build- 
ing, floors, walls, or cooling tanks. Sani- 
tation and cleanliness in the dairy are 
essential. In many localities the laws 
provide that dairy buildings shall be 
built of a sanitary type of construction, 
and concrete is the only all-purpose ma- 
terial which will enable the dairyman 
to meet these requirements. Besides its 
cleanliness, concrete will withstand the 
moisture typical of the average dairy- 
house. See pages 108 to 111. 




CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



39 







Ice Houses 

EVERY farm should have an ice house to prevent undue waste of perishable 
products. Ice costs little beyond the labor of harvesting. The convenience of 
having a supply available for the care of farm products as well as for the home 
is an economy. This storage house should be located where it can be well drained 
by underground tile, and where it will be shaded in midday by the trees or larger 

buildings. It can be made 



'TBTfj 



of monolithic, block, or 
metal lath, but the 
monolithic structure is 
best. The design on 
page 111 will be helpful. 




40 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




Poultry Houses 



POULTRY kept in properly designed concrete houses have plenty of 
sun and air and are safe against attack from rats and other maraud- 
ing animals. Such houses are more easily kept free from lice. They 
are sanitary and easily cleaned. An ideal poultry house is illustrated on 
page 122, which also shows details and gives building instructions. 

Duck raising does not require flowing streams — in fact, but limited 
water exercise is advisable if the young birds are to reach marketable con- 
dition at early age. All the facilities needed can be provided by a concrete 
pool which can be built near the poultry house. Information as to the 
building of concrete pools is found on page 100. 




CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



41 




Watering Troughs 

THE inconvenience of the old wooden trough has been done away with 
by the use of concrete. The importance of the watering trough and the 
simplicity with which it can be built make it one of the first pieces of con- 
crete work done on the farm. To avoid the unsanitary mud hole adjacent 
to your trough a small section of paving, as shown on page 95, is advisable. 




42 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




Concrete Silos 



WHEN farmers gradually awoke to the ad- 
vantages of feeding silage, and the silo as 
a permanent farm structure sprang into evi- 
dence here and there, it was characteristic to 
refer to these very profitable structures as 
"pillars of progress." It was dairymen in gen- 
eral who first recognized the silo's profit-earn- 
ing capacity, and for a long time a silo was the 
mark of a dairy farm. However, it has long 
since been learned that stock other than dairy 
cattle can profitably be fed silage. Any and 
every farm where only a small herd of animals 
is kept for domestic convenience can hardly 



afford to be without a silo because it is the 
only structure that makes green pasturage 
possible twelve months in the year. 

When building a silo, the number of years 
of service should be taken into consideration. 
A concrete silo is permanent, fireproof, wind- 
proof, and rot-proof, eliminating repairs and 
upkeep. 

Concrete silos may be built monolithic, 
block, or stave. They have been referred to 
on pages 136 to 144, where tables, detailed 
drawings, construction principles, and other 
necessarv information will be found. 



% 



•>.- 




CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



43 




1 he structure above serves both as a silo and as an implement 
storage house. The lower right-hand picture shows one of the 
largest silos in existence. 





44 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 





One of the most desira- 
ble advantages of a con- 
crete silo is its ability 
to withstand wind- 
storms and fire, as evi- 
denced in the lower illus- 
tration. The diameter 
and height of the silo de- 
pend upon the require- 
ments. Complete in- 
formation is found on 
pages 136 to 144. 




CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



45 




**^r,.. .„-- — 








s^aSa^K 




46 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




Bins and Elevators 

FIRE-PROOF and rat-proof bins, tanks, and grain elevators 
built of concrete have proved practical. Monolithic construc- 
tion is the greatest obstacle to the breeding of insects and destruc- 
tive rodents, and loss by such pests can best be averted by 
concrete construction. Stores of grain and other materials may be 
guarded against the ravages of fire with this artificial stone, which, 
by its watertightness, also protects against rot and dampness. 
Strength, permanence, adaptability to almost any design, cleanli- 
ness, lack of maintenance — all point to concrete as the ideal mate- 
rial with which to build. 




CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



47 




Concrete Dams 



SMALL streams running through your property can be profitably dammed either to supply 
motive power or as a water storage. Stationary farm machinery can be economically operated 
by water power, thus conserving what was formerly a decided waste. For either an auxiliary 
or a regular water supply a dam will soon pay for itself. 

Concrete is recognized as the best material with which to construct a dam. It serves as 
well for such adjuncts as piers, boat-landings, and platforms for swimming and ice handling. 
Construction of a dam entails engineering problems, and it should be attempted only by 
a man experienced in this class of work. 




48 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




Highway Construction 



PROSPERITY follows in the wake of paved 
•*- highways. They not only provide an out- 
let for the goods you produce, but afford greater 
merchandising possibilities. 

Instead of allowing the conditions of the 
highways to indicate the time for marketing 
your products, why not dispose of them when 
prices are at a maximum? This can be done 



only over roads that are traversable 365 days 
in the year. 

Small loads must be carried at a much slower 
rate of speed over muddy byways, and the 
wear and tear on your hauling equipment is 
multiplied many times. Replace roads such 
as those pictured at the top of these pages 
with hard-surfaced feeders, shown at the bot- 







■ ■ 




^jigfe 










"^B T ^^Bfctejtefc^ 


: - jr- 




~ : '^^9 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



49 



BWgt 


• jL 




* ■■'■■■ ''"* 


*3 1! 








■ r '-Mirm 


i W-. 




'■ ^MMmmM^.^ 


PlI 


tjm 


M 






l.'r *^ r 


vWpl|| 


LBS. 


BUS HRU''" 


m 


ffT"' 


. ^^ | __ 


1 


B**^^^™^™^^ 


s* 


"•;• v <-j 


_»■% 


s-?; 




""'3^* 


Ifc^f "^ 


' : H^&jjS 


* •■ § 


'W 










-' ■■•■■ 










^ f - 


5? • 


v 


^^; v : ~" • 








4.' v, 


%,-'.. " • • 


'•*:' - ? : 


*>* . 


■; %.-^Kv|^^i"> 


s^ ; 















torn of these pages, to and from the point of 
sale and your source of supply. 

Permanent, year-round roads bring your 
neighbors near, lessen the distance to church 
and school, and tend to improve your home 
life and conditions. We cannot all be located 
directly on the line of a railroad, but we can 
bring transportation facilities to our door in 
the most economical way by constructing high- 
ways of concrete. 



As a highway building material, concrete 
has proved its superiority in that it gives us, 
at a moderate first cost, a permanent road re- 
quiring a minimum of maintenance. Actual 
test has proved that it has the greatest tractive 
value, and the fact that it can be built with the 
lowest possible crown makes it ideal for horse- 
drawn as well as for motor vehicles. 

Information regarding the construction of 
highways is found on pages 132 to 135. 




50 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




Industrial Driveways 

CONCRETE driveways in building material or other commer- 
cial yards make hauling problems easier. Many yards have 
paved areas on which such materials as shingles and lath are piled 
in order to keep them away from all contact with the soil and thus 
prevent rot. Other yards have found the paved area, with shed 
adjoining, a convenient working platform for the manufacture of 
various concrete products during spare time. This type of con- 
struction is explained on pages 64 to 68, under the heading 
" Floors, Walks, and Pavements." Complete information about 
"Concrete Products" is found on pages 76 to 92. 




CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



51 




' 






~~+M 



- :> L i ■ 




Rapid delivery of or- 
ders is insured by con- 
crete pavements, whether 
highways or driveways. 
The lumber-yard, the 
coal-yard, the building 
material dealer's yard, 
the post-office, and other 
similar industries are all 
dependent upon concrete 
roadway for efficiency in 
delivery and cleanliness 
of surroundings. 




52 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




Irrigation Canals 



1\ /TILLIONS of acres of arid lands have 
-L'A yielded their fertility through irriga- 
tion, and irrigation has been made to produce 
the greatest possible returns through the use 
of concrete. Concrete pipe plays a large part 
in many irrigation projects conducting water 
for some distance in pipe lines. 

Water is frequently carried over ravines 
by means of concrete flumes, which are really 
bridges supporting the sluiceway in which 



the water travels. Concrete is used in canals 
by essentially paving their bottom and the 
slopes. As canals and flumes are generally 
used in large projects, plans and specifications 
should be prepared by an engineer or a con- 
tractor who specializes in irrigation problems. 
However, for small canals, the specifications 
under "Floors, Walks, and Pavements," pages 
64 to 68; "Troughs, Tanks, and Bins," pages 
93 to 96, will answer. 




CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



53 




Culverts and Bridges 

CULVERTS or bridges must be provided in highways to pass 
natural flow of streams as well as to care for excessive flow 
during flood periods. Concrete bridges and culverts have almost 
entirely replaced all other types, particularly for small and 
moderate spans, and the use of concrete is rapidly being extended 
for long spans which but a few years ago would have been deemed 
impractical to construct of concrete. 

A culvert is generally regarded as an opening too small to be 
classed as a bridge. Although there is no definite line to distinguish 
between the two, it is common to refer to openings 10 or 12 feet 
or more in span as bridges. The construction of a bridge involves 
engineering principles, and as there are many factors, including a 
careful survey of existing conditions, that enter into its design, 
the services of an experienced bridge engineer is advised. Except 
in very unusual cases, the average contractor can design and con- 
struct a box culvert. Drawings are shown on page 151. 




54 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



55 




56 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




PART TWO 



57 




No building can endure without proper foundations and walls 



Foundations and Walls 



WHEN the simple principles of concrete 
practice outlined under "Fundamental 
Principles," pages 153 to 185, have been ob- 
served, building a concrete foundation is one 
of the easiest types of construction work and 
within the range of any one's ability. 

Where soil conditions lack the best support- 
ing capacity, the foundation wall proper is usu- 
ally built on a footing, which is a wider sec- 
tion of concrete, varying in thickness to meet 
conditions, laid in the bottom of the founda- 
tion trench and on which the wall proper is 
started. After good bearing area is secured 
through spreading out a footing, say ten or 
twelve inches wide and six or eight inches 
thick, the foundation wall proper may be only 
six inches thick if a small building is to be 
carried. 

Dimensions of footings must be varied in 
accordance with the bearing capacity of the 
soil. It is not possible to give uniform width 
for footings, but it is an easy matter to make 
tests of the soil and from these determine the 



dimensions required. The average barn has 
walls from eight to ten inches thick, and may 
require a footing two feet wide and twelve 
inches thick to support the load of the struc- 
ture. For a two-story house having eight-inch 
walls soil conditions may require a footing 18 
inches wide and 12 inches thick. If it is not 
convenient to determine the actual bearing 
capacity of the soil, common practice requires 










■' -4. 



'Foundation wall 
/"■2 '•£> 5 concrete 



Cross Sec rion 



/■2 Mortar - 



2-1 




-/■'<? £ .' 5 Concrete 



Concrete basement foundation wall 



58 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




Sprezdec ^_\£ 
Wire tie 



For simple founda- 
tion work it is often 
unnecessary to use 
forms for placing con- 
crete in the excavated 
trench. Above ground 
forms must be used. 
This sketch suggests 
the method of adapting standard form panels illus- 
trated and described elsewhere. In using standard 
panels variations in height and length may be 
made by assembling added panels fastened with 
bolts 




• Blocks ._ 
Form above footing 




Forms for portion of the concrete 
wall above ground. Panels can be 
added either to the length or height 



footing just to be on the safe side. See table 
on page 181, which shows bearing power of 
soils in tons per square foot. 

Thickness of foundation walls, like thick- 
ness of foundations, depends upon the load to 
be carried. Ordinary building walls necessary 
for such structures as poultry houses, garages, 
houses, and barns, range in thickness from six 



inches for small buildings to ten or twelve 
inches for larger ones. Foundation walls for 
ordinary buildings without a basement or a 
cellar need not be made of a very rich mix- 
ture. Absolute watertightness is not necessary. 
Therefore, a 1 : I'jA : 5 or 1 : 3 : 6 mixture or 
even leaner may be used. For watertight 
wall construction a 1:2:4, 1 : 2yi : 4, or in 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



59 



i> ofl : 2 cement mortar 
on interior: 



' foundation wa/i 



iof/-2 cement mortar 
on exterior-. 



r"J-3y ers °f Burlap mopped with 
'hot tor or asphaltum. 

x <* e " //oor on °' d ^ r l2 Mortar 



j° V j/>^ £cp£C e t e o' J 



2£ 



= ws? s/>r ~ >»>~~w =■ • >») =»>YS / /, ' =/m. 



w 



Variob 



Cross Sect/oh 



tfote: 

Construction suggested where 
outside of wait cannot be reached 
nor drainage of foundation provid- 
ed. Thickness of new floor depends 
on height of around water aboye base- 
ment floor in wet weather 




Foundation wait 



Tar joint 
J rttew floor on 



tlortar 



l'2:4"Concrete' f '' r p", 




'»J>>>-)>l*l)>R>:)4l);>*i>}iEiii * )>i~iu^>>>=//r±'i^i/te't}7% 
'Concrete tile drain 
Cross Sec tioiy 

Note: 

Cut out and fill cracks in floor and 
wall before placing new f/oor or plaster 
coat- r 



Repairing existing concrete to prevent seepage of ground water. Care must be taken to carry a 

continuous line of waterproof material over the floor space and high enough on the walls 

to provide against maximum water pressure 



-^Plaster with /■'£ 'cement mortar 
or mop with hot tar or asphaltum 




«.\"'"- ; <i /'foundation vra// 
■ ■ «,-■ .' ■"> ' /■'<?£ •■ f- Concrete 



Tar joint 



^m/Vortar 



>c C/.Pi :a Cn, 



tZi- '4 Concrete 




Foundation wall 
l-'Hi -4 concrete 



L avers of hur/ap mopped with 
hot' far or asphaltum 

l : 2r*7ortar 



;":»Ste^4 concre ted '&, 



'Concrete tile drain 
Cr oss Se-c -r/ort 



J: /j2 > £ ^4"concrete^ 




Variable 



.„."-•(>•'' ''I 



Cross Sect ion 



Foundations and basements built in low ground should be constructed to provide against 

maximum water pressure. The application of waterproofing materials will not remedy faulty 

concrete work. The concrete itself should be rich enough to be impervious to moisture 



extreme cases, where much ground water is to 
be encountered, a 1:2:3 concrete, should be 
used for the foundation walls of buildings hav- 
ing basements or cellars. See plans on follow- 
ing page, which show methods of waterproofing 
foundation walls. 

It is common practice to play safe by rein- 
forcing walls with a small amount of ^4-inch 
round steel rods placed at the wall center and 
spaced about two or two and one-half feet, 
center to center, vertically and horizontally. 
If walls are between eight and ten inches thick, 
two such sets of reinforcing are sometimes 
used, one set being placed two inches from the 
exterior face of the wall and the other the 
same distance from the interior face. Window 
and door openings have corners where crack- 
ing may occur, due principally to temperature 
changes. Such openings are usually framed 



with rods parallel to the sides and diagonal 
with each corner. In a case of concrete lintels 
such units are properly reinforced when pre- 
cast, or as cast in place. 

In excavating for foundations the trench 
should be carried deep enough so that its bot- 
tom will extend below possible frost penetra- 
tion to firm bearing soil. Otherwise upheaval 
due to expansion of the soil when freezing may 
cause cracking of the foundation which will 
probably extend up into the structure wall. 

To mark out a foundation area a stake is set 
at the location of one corner of the building. 
From this stake a string is stretched to an- 
other stake set in position corresponding to 
the other corner on the same side of the build- 
ing. From this second stake a string is 
stretched to a third stake that is set at a point 
corresponding to the length of this side of the 



60 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




The instructions, as explained on this and the pre- 
ceding pages, show that care must be taken 
in marking out foundation areas 



building. Before setting the third stake, how- 
ever, it is necessary to square up the corner at 
the location of the second stake if the building 
is on a right angle. This is done by measuring 
off a distance of eight feet from the center of 
the second stake driven back toward the first 
stake, and setting a pin in the string at this 
eight-foot point. Then a distance of six feet 
is measured from the center of the second 
stake along the string leading to the third 
stake, and this six-foot point marked in the 
same manner. The person holding the third 
stake then moves it back or forth to the right 
or left as may be necessary, keeping the string 
tight meanwhile until the diagonal distance 
between the two pins is exactly ten feet, as 
determined by an assistant measuring with a 
ten-foot measure. The third stake should be 
driven firmly in place when this ten-foot dis- 
tance has been accurately fixed. The corner 
marked by the third stake can be squared in 
the same manner, and so on until all four 
corners of the building have been located. 

One of the illustrations shown in the section 
on Forms on pages 163 to 167 calls attention to 
the fact that only single form sections may be 
required in some foundation work, where the 
natural soil is firm enough to be self support- 
ing. This, of course, applies only to the con- 



crete work below and up to ground level. 
From that point upward forms must be pro- 
vided on both sides of the concrete. In soils 
that are not naturally well drained it is some- 
times necessary to lay a tile drain at the bot- 
tom of the foundation trench and just outside 
the foundation wall or footing leading to some 
natural outlet or drainage bed; otherwise a 
house cellar, for example, might be damp at 
certain seasons of the year, owing to water 
leaking into the cellar through a neglected 
construction joint in the wall, or because the 
joint between foundation wall and concrete 
floor was not properly sealed. See illustra- 
tions on page 59. 

Monolithic concrete walls above ground are 
usually made of a 1 : 2 : 4 or a 1 : 2^ : 4 con- 
crete. Field stones, ranging in size up to four, 
five, or perhaps six inches in diameter, may be 
used to advantage in ordinary concrete founda- 
tions. By ordinary foundations is meant those 
which are not intended to enclose a basement 
or cellar, but merely to support the structure. 
The use of such stones in proper ratio to the 
concrete mixture itself results in considerable 
economy. Such stones are frequently referred 
to as rubble stones or nigger-heads. If used 
as just indicated, the following precautions 
must be observed : 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



61 




Sturdy forms maintain correct lines 



The stones must be clean and free from all 
adhering material, such as loam, clay, and moss. 
They should be wet immediately before being 
placed in the trench with the concrete, and no 
stone of this kind used should be larger in 
greatest dimension than one-third the thick- 
ness of the foundation wall or other section in 
which.it is used. In placing such stones they 
should not be dumped into the trench pro- 
miscuously with the concrete, but rather dis- 
tributed uniformly by hand so that they will lie 
at least two inches back from the face of the 
wall and no nearer to each other in the wall 
than will permit surrounding them completely 
with the concrete mixture. 

Concrete block is being used more exten- 
sively in all kinds of foundation work, partic- 
ularly for small and medium sized structures. 
Usually an ordinary concrete footing is laid 
first and the block masonry wall started upon 
this. When using concrete block, the principal 
precaution to take is to be sure [that they are 
well and uniformly bedded in a rich Lehigh 
cement mortar, not leaner than \:2}4 or 1:3, 
and that all joints are well filled and pointed 
up. If this is not done, spots will occur 
where leakage will give trouble. As an added 
precaution, block foundation walls are usually 
given a quarter-inch coat of rich sand-cement 
mortar on the exterior before the foundation 
trench is back filled. The proper mortar pro- 



portions for coating and pointing will be found 
on page 158. 

Block walls for ordinary square or rectangu- 
lar buildings need no reinforcement. Precast 
window-sills and lintels are usually reinforced. 

Concrete is used very extensively for walls 
to enclose private grounds, commercial plants, 
barnyards, to help hold embankment fills and 
terraces in place, and to form the principal 
structural part of a reservoir, swimming pool, or 
similar structure. No matter what the type of 
wall, and regardless of whether the construc- 
tion is monolithic or block, the adaptability of 
concrete permits a wide variety in surface 
appearance. Where concrete walls are used 
simply as enclosures, as for a barnyard, they 
require but little strength beyond that neces- 
sary to make them self supporting. Under 
such conditions walls are often built of large 
precast units or slabs. These slabs may either 
be cast in place or be built elsewhere so that 
they will fit into recesses in the sides of posts 
or pilasters previously set. The advantage 
of precasting slabs for such a wall is the ease 
of assembling the units. These walls have a 
panel and pilaster effect, the posts being the 
pilasters and the slabs the panels. The same 
applies to walls, which may be built of concrete 
silo staves, although these are not so attractive 
as the other type because of the greater number 
of pilasters and panels and the smaller units. 



62 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




Concrete block foundation giving a non-continuous air space 



The appearance of an enclosure wall is im- 
portant. Extra care to make good forms will 
be well repaid. Forms and their construction 
are described on pages 163 to 167. Under 
"Concrete Products," pages 76 to 92, details 
of post construction will be found. 

The average enclosure wall is rarely more 
than six feet high, and the concrete is usually 
placed between forms by dumping from hand 
buckets or wheelbarrows. There is consider- 
able opportunity to prevent monotony of ap- 
pearance by a little forethought used when 
planning forms so that depressed or raised 
panels will be reproduced on the surface. 

For walls above ground, where appearance 
plays an important part, the selection of a 
suitable surface finish can be made from those 
described on pages 176 and 177. Drawings 




and illustrations of enclosure walls are in- 
cluded under "Concrete Products." 

The principal reason for reinforcing concrete 
walls is to prevent cracking from possible set- 
tlement and from temperature changes rather 
than because of any need for supporting loads. 
An exception to the latter is in the case of re- 
taining walls, such structures being constantly 
exposed to thrust from earth or water pressure. 
As expansion and contraction must be pro- 
vided for in long stretches of walls, a suitable 
joint is introduced every 25 or 30 feet, unless 
the walls are so thoroughly and strongly rein- 
forced as to throw all strains of expansion and 
contraction upon the reinforcing steel. Some- 
times walls are built by plastering a skeleton 
framework of steel covered with wire mesh or 
expanded metal. Two or three coats of ce- 
ment mortar are applied to the metal, pro- 
ducing the effect of a concrete wall. 







Concrete foundations are rigid. Engines, windmills, and cream separators need concrete foundations. These designs 

show how simple such foundations are to build. They require no reinforcement. Bolts can 

be securely fixed in the concrete to fasten the machine in position 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



63 




Building Out Rats 



IN ADDITION to being great destroyers and 
wasters of food supplies, rats are a menace 
to health because they are plague carriers. 
In several coast states laws have been enacted 
that rats be built out of structures, and it has 
been recognized that the best way to accom- 
plish this is by consistent and extensive use 
of concrete. Old buildings can be given an 
effective ratproofing by carrying up false 
foundation walls on the outside to such a 
height that the rats will find no resting place 
while attempting to gnaw through and into 



the building. Floors and foundation walls 
should be so joined that there will be no gap 
of earth through which the animals can bur- 
row. The first step toward ratproofing is to 
see that all ground level floors are made of 
concrete. Foundations must be carried down 
far enough so that the animals will find it 
futile to burrow beneath them. All farm 
buildings should rest on concrete foundations 
and have concrete floors, even though they 
may not be constructed of concrete. Accom- 
panying sketches offer suggestions. 




Ground 
Sur face 

■7/1-'/'= 




''/=» £ Concrete to be placed ' direct N 
'" on earth fill ' 



64 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




Only a few simple tools are required. For a neat job a groover and an edger should 

be used 

Floors, Walks, and Pavements 



THE various classes of construction indi- 
cated by the above heading have been 
purposely grouped for description in a broad 
general way. Most of the principles that apply 
to one apply to all, particularly if the paving is 
laid upon the ground. 

Concrete floors and pavements are a part 
of the complete home. The walks leading from 
the main sidewalk to the porch steps and 
around the side of the house to the back door 
and from the back door to the alley are neces- 
sary. If there is a garage, there should be either 
a broad pavement leading from the street to 
its doorway or a pair of parallel strips serving 
the same purpose. Any outbuildings on the 
home grounds should have concrete floors. No 
other type of floor should be used in a garage. 
Many houses are now being built with the 
basement completely concrete enclosed by 
building the first-story floor of concrete and 
the stairs leading to the basement of the same 
material, so that fires which may emanate 
from rubbish carelessly kept in the basement 
may not go beyond the source of origin. 

The house heating plant should be concrete 
enclosed, with monolithic concrete or block 
walls and reinforced concrete floor overhead, 
so that the furnace will be completely cut off 
from the remainder of the house and made 100 
per cent safe. 

All classes of concrete floors and other pave- 
ments may be built along two general methods 
of construction. They may be either one- 
course or two-course. Until recently the 
latter type was more common. This consisted 



of a concrete base upon which was placed a 
concrete wearing course before the base had 
completely hardened, the base being of a lean 
mixture, such as 1 : 2>2 : 5, and the top or 
wearing course being a rich cement mortar, 
such as a 1:2 mixture. 

One-course construction, as its name im- 
plies, means that the walk or pavement is built 
throughout its thickness of one relatively rich 
mixture of concrete, such as 1 : 2 : 3 or 1 : 2 : 4. 
Considerable experience with one-course con- 
struction has proved it more reliable than the 
two-course type, largely because of careless 
workmanship so often prevailing in connection 
with the latter. Unless the mortar wearing 
surface is applied almost immediately after the 
base has been placed, the two courses will not 
unite firmly and in time will separate. Such a 
possibility is entirely removed with one-course 
construction. 

Concrete pavements of any kind, indoors or 
out, resting immediately upon the soil, should 
lie on a firm, well-compacted base. Soft spots 
over the area to be paved should be dug out 
and filled with clean gravel, well compacted. 
For sidewalks, feeding floors, barnyard pave- 
ments, and all floors laid on the ground good 
drainage from beneath the pavement should 
be provided in whatever manner may be neces- 
sary. A specially prepared subbase of gravel 
or cinders is seldom necessary if the natural 
soil drains freely, is well compacted, and is 
sloped slightly so that free drainage is always 
present. If, however, the soil is dense and 
tends to be water-logged, particularly during 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



65 



Stakes to hold 
Side forms 



Compacted 
soil, cinders or 
gravel sub-base 
well drained 




Crowned Va" 

Round or chamfer corners 



Sidewalk cut into 
slabs about 4 feet long 



SIDEWALK 

4 Feet Wide. (One Course.) 1 : 2& : 5 Mix 

Quantities per Lin. Ft. of Walk 



.417 X 4 X 1 = 1.668 cu. ft. or .062 cu. yd. of concrete 
per lin. ft. of sidewalk 



Lehigh cement = .074 bbl. 
Sand = .028 cu. yd. 

Pebbles = .055 cu. yd. 



Cast alte 
nsie s)ah 
remove 

■forms, an 
inter me " 




General view of concrete feeding floor 
(One-course floor, 5" thick) 

FEEDING FLOOR 

18 Ft. by 18 Ft. Square. 1 : VA : 5 Mix 

.417 X6 X 6 15.02 " 

= .56 cu. yd. per 6 by 6 slab 



27 


27 


Material per Slab 




6 by 6 feet 

Lehigh cement = .694 bbl. 
Sand = .26 cu. yd. 
Pebbles = .52 cu. yd. 





protracted rainy spells, then a special subbase 
of gravel or cinders may be necessary. Unless 
this is properly placed, however, it may cause 
more difficulties than would its omission. For 
example, if this subbase is so laid that it is in 
reality nothing but a filled trench, then it will 
be merely a sump that will collect water and 
make the walk unstable, especially if the water 
should freeze. The consequent expansion 
would heave the walk and break the slabs or 
throw them out of level. The same is true of 
any outdoor pavement. Because of the ad- 
vantages mentioned, walks and other outdoor 
pavements are now more often of one-course 
construction than of the other type. 

Concrete walks are usually laid in a con- 
tinuous stretch, although they may be built 
by concreting alternate slabs first and inter- 
mediate ones last. An important point to 
observe is that each slab be completely inde- 



Material for Nine Slabs 

Lehigh cement = 25 sacks 
Sand = 2]A cu. yds. 

Pebbles = 5 cu. yds. 



pendent of adjacent ones, that is, the joint 
marking the end of one slab and the com- 
mencement of another should be continuous 
through the concrete to the soil upon which 
it rests, then any slight disturbance of the 
walk due to upheaval or settlement can readily 
be corrected by raising or lowering the dis- 
turbed slabs as necessary. 

The essentials of proportioning, mixing, and 
placing concrete have been described on pages 
153 to 185. Ordinary sidewalks should be 
built not less than five inches thick. This 
also applies to feeding floors, barnyard pave- 
ments, floors in house cellars, or other build- 
ings about the home except where loaded 
wagons use the floor as a driveway, then the 
thickness should be increased to six inches, 
and in some cases it may be advisable to 
reinforce the concrete to provide additional 
strength and safeguards against cracking. If 



66 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




-FORMS 
-STAKES 



A— Fill (Gravel, Cinders.Etc.) 
B — Concrete Body 
C — Top Dressing 



Cross-sectional view of two-course concrete sidewalk under construction. Below 
the fill all roots should be cut to 18 inches below ground 



at any point a walk is crossed by a traffic 
driveway, then added thickness as well as 
risers must be provided at that point. See 
illustration on page 71. 

Concrete walks and traffic pavements, re- 
gardless of their kind, are now seldom given 
final finish by using a steel trowel. Instead, a 
wooden hand float similar to a trowel is used 
and in this way the gritty non-skid surface tex- 
ture secured. 

In placing concrete for walks and other pave- 
ments practice developed recently has proved 
the advantage of rolling the concrete after 
placing on the subgrade, before final finishing, 
in order to compact it to utmost density and 
to remove excess water from the mixture. 
Street and highway pavements and private 
drives of average width are also given their 
first finish after rolling by passing to and fro 
across their width and advancing gradually 
along their length a wide canvas or rubber 
belt. 

The most profitable uses made of concrete 
pavement on the farm are in flooring dairy 
stock quarters, paving the barnyard, building 
a feeding area in the hog lots, in fact, using it 
for floors in all buildings and for all outdoor 
paving requirements. 

Concrete floors and pavements help to keep 
rats out of many buildings where their en- 
trance would mean the loss or destruction 
of valuable foodstuffs, not to mention the 
probable carrying of disease for which these 
pests are notorious. 

The profits of concrete hog feeding floors 
and barnyard pavements have been so well 
demonstrated by experiments in feeding, con- 
ducted by various state agricultural experi- 
ment stations, as to prove that no farmer can 



afford to be without one. Thus many a farmer 
has had proof laid before him that every year 
or at least two he feeds stock without a con- 
crete floor he has lost through actual waste 
of grain, disease, extra labor required to keep 
quarters clean, rats, and other causes, enough 
money to cover the actual cost of paving or 
laying a floor on the area in question. 

Feeding floors and barnyard pavements are 
usually composed of slabs about 10 feet square. 
Forms are set for a series of the slabs usually 
so that alternate slabs can be concreted first 
and intermediate ones last. In constructing 
the forms for the blocks of a feeding floor, care 
must be taken to stagger the adjacent divisions, 
in order to have continuous joints in the 
finished work, as shown in detail below. 

The enclosure formed by the forms is filled 
with the mixed concrete, which is struck off as 



*•*&"> 1 



a^j 1 

^rlote how inter- 
ior forms are 
placed fo make 
joints contin- 
uous * 



Z"x6° 



<g'-Q" 



I 



&±Q" 



One of the simplest types of concrete construction 

is the laying of a pavement, such as a 

concrete feeding floor 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



67 




Bell trap 
Concrete drain 
tvith slope of 
l-0"in \50-0" 



., . Foundation -,%'?■' 

Note-- < 

Gutter and manger 
to be finished smooth 
and slope I" in 25- to- 
wards bell trap Depth 
of gutter not to exceed 
9 or be less than & " 



\G-rade 



Design for manger, stalls, feeding alley, and manure drain 



nearly level as possible by guiding a strike- 
board along the top of forms. The concrete 
is then rolled, if this is practicable. Usually a 
light steel roller, 10 or 12 inches in diameter, 
weighing about 75 pounds for a six- or eight- 
foot length, is used. After this the surface is 
finished by hand float or belt. 

Surface drainage of all floors and pavements 
is usually accomplished by giving the whole 
pavement a slight slope in one or two direc- 
tions. Concrete walks are often crowned 
slightly at their center. Barnyard pavements 
and feeding floors are sloped about ^ inch 
to the foot toward a gutter, preferably built 
as a part of the floor, this gutter also sloping 
toward a drain connecting with a manure pit 
to insure conservation of all fertilizer. 

To prevent animals, while feeding, from shov- 
ing off grain on a concrete floor, a curb should 
be built around it. This is particularly true 
of a hog feeding floor. This curb should ex- 
tend 18 inches below the base of the floor, so 



that the animals will not root beneath it and 
should project 2 or 3 inches above its top 
surface so as to prevent animals from shoving 
the feed into the surrounding dirt. 

All floors supported only at their sides or 
edges must be reinforced. Such pavements 
as sidewalks, feeding floors, etc., resting on a 
firm subbase of soil, gravel, or other material, 
properly placed, do not, as a rule, need rein- 
forcement. 

A reinforced concrete floor which serves as a 
haymow floor, or basement ceiling of a general 
purpose barn, is one of its most valuable 
features. Within the last two or three years 
there have been several instances recorded of 
barn fires which broke out in hay-lofts and 
were prevented from completely destroying the 
barn because the reinforced concrete floor 
served as an absolute barrier. 

It is not possible to give a standard design 
for such floors because the thickness, quantity 
of reinforcement required, and similar details 




A small concrete feeding floor also affords easy access to the barn 



68 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




A typical concrete barn floor. Its advantages have been mentioned in the text 



depend upon length of span and load to be 
provided. 

To avoid dusting of concrete floors there 
are several precautions that are absolutely 
necessary. Materials must be properly selected 
and prepared. Dirty sand should be washed. 
Too much fine sand should be eliminated. 
Overtroweling is objectionable and proper cur- 
ing is essential. 

A properly cured floor is allowed to dry out 
slowly and the surface should be kept wet for 
several days. Drafts coming from under door- 
ways are as likely to cause evaporation as ex- 
cessive heat, and are to be avoided if a strong, 
dustless floor is to be secured. All traffic 
should be kept off the new laid concrete. Even 
though it may appear to be hard, it is not 
capable of carrying any load for several days. 
Its use before this time may result in cracking. 

Concrete floors and other pavements will be 
dense and watertight if the concrete is prop- 
erly proportioned, mixed to correct consist- 
ency, and given required protection after it is 
finished. Damp floors are due almost entirely 
to lean mixtures or to improperly graded ones. 
Special treatments to secure watertightness 
are not necessary if concreting has been done 
correctly. The subject of quantity of water 
has been discussed more fully in Section Three, 
page 158. 

The problem of resurfacing old floors or 
walks frequently arises because of some neg- 
lect when construction was originally done. 



For example, in two-course floors or walks, as 
already mentioned, unless the top course is 
placed before the base has commenced to 
harden, there will not be effective bond be- 
tween the two courses and in time they will 
separate. It is not difficult to make new con- 
crete adhere thoroughly to old and thereby 
accomplish effective repair in cases such as 
mentioned, if the following simple precautions 
are observed: 

All loose, disintegrated concrete must be 
removed and the surface thus exposed thor- 
oughly cleansed by scrubbing with broom or 
brush and water. If the aggregate particles 
in this surface are coated with a film of ce- 
ment, then this film should be removed by 
further washing with a weak acid solution 
consisting of 1 part of common muriatic acid 
to 3 or 4 parts of water. Just as soon as the 
acid solution has acted sufficiently to remove 
the cement film, the surface thus being treated 
should immediately be washed thoroughly with 
clean water. The concrete mixture properly 
prepared for doing the repair necessary is then 
applied to this cleansed surface. As an added 
precaution the surface may be painted with a 
grout consisting of cement and water mixed 
to a creamy consistency and the plaster coat 
immediately applied and well troweled on the 
surface. 

Top finish should be worked sufficiently to 
give it a strong bond to the base course, but the 
surface should not be troweled too smoothly. 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



69 




Concrete steps with cheek walls 



Steps and Porches 



HOW often do we see a quite attractive 
house or other building with porch and 
steps sagging or breaking away from the struc- 
ture all because built of short-lived material? 
Wood in contact with the soil is exposed to 
alternate moist and dry conditions. Probably 
no home built originally with wooden porches 
and steps has escaped the necessity of having 
this part of the structure repaired frequently 
or entirely replaced. Each time repair or 
renewal is necessary and the use of concrete 
is omitted in that connection, just so much 
time, labor, and money have been wasted. 

The skill required to build a simple porch 
and steps for the average building is not 




Forms used for steps are 
of the standard panel 
type illustrated and des- 
cribed elsewhere. This is 
about thesimplest kind of 
concrete work, and dimensions of steps or porch landing 
may be varied at will by variation in setting of forms 



beyond the range of the home worker. Forms 
are simple, and no special tools are required 
that cannot be found about every home. A 
combination of the principles of construction 
applying to "Floors, Walks, and Pavements," 
on pages 64 to 68, makes up the practices gov- 
erning the building of steps and porches. 

A design for reinforcing concrete porch 
floors of certain width is shown below, which 
will enable any one to build a complete con- 
crete porch. 

The table accompanying this design permits 
the adaptation to widths from four to ten 
feet inclusive with respect to thickness of slab 
and size and spacing of reinforcing. 



-Bend up alternate bars af both _«_| 
lends at angle of 45 degrees at g span, vyy 

r-5ee table for si$e and 
{spacing of reinforcing 



1 r-H 



'Porch 
foundation 



House 
foundation- 



TABL f 


S 


H 


■Size of 
rods 


5 pa ci ng 
of rods 


<t'-o" 


45 


i" 


8 


5'-0' 


Al 


J.' 


&" 


6'-0" 


42 


r 


9' 


B-O' 


5' 





6' 


to '-O" 


5" 


3' 

3 


4" 



Porch floor design calculated for widths ranging from 4 to 

10 feet. The table shows the thickness of floor, size and 

spacing of rods for each particular variation in width 



70 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




The protecting curb serves also as a supporting beam 

Barn Approaches 

THE construction of a barn approach must be planned so that 
the span will accommodate heavy loads. The reinforcement 
necessary and the thickness of the span are important factors, and 
the services of some one experienced in this class of work should 
be secured. 




CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



71 




Crossover and Riser 



CONCRETE walks on the farm or around 
home grounds relieve the housewife of 
much of the drudgery of housecleaning. Men 
folks have no excuse for muddy boots where 
a concrete walk leads from the rear porch to 
the outbuildings, if, in addition, the barnyard 
and feed lot are concrete paved. 

Accompanying views show how a concrete 
walk should be protected where provision 
must be made for loaded vehicles to cross it. 
Two strips of concrete, one on each side, 
slope away from the walk level in order to 
provide for the first impact of 
the vehicle as it crosses the walk. 
The illustration at the 



bottom is a suggestion for an entrance riser. 
The type of construction is the same as for the 
crossover. Additional information about con- 
crete pavements and walks is given on pages 
64 to 68. 






W^W^Ml 


" f ' W~- i r it » A is ■ r it" 






IkPHpi 


" *""s31B»j Ws 


Jp '''"V-I 






^ 


MHB5§^i?&v!ESik i ~-'i>eP'. 


— ~ ;— __ — 


*w*^- MU 


— I *. 1 " :,-■■■ "l 






**.-^iifl 


- » - 






■— ■ 


■ 'iiL 


Wz^.- 




' 







A riser eliminates jolt and reduces strain 



72 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




Hotbeds and 
Cold -Frames 

A HOTBED should be located so that it 
slopes toward the south, and should be 
protected from cold wind. The standard hot- 
bed sash is usually three by six feet. Average 
home requirements will be met by a bed 
large enough to require four sash to cover. 
For commercial needs any desired size can be 
obtained by increased length. In some cases 
hotbeds are so made that after they have 
served for producing the early out-of-the-season 

-+^ 



"Standard 3 l O"xQ>'-0" 
double £la.z,ed ^ssh. 




SectiohA-A 



^ 



Vertical section showing bracing and arrangement of 
forms 



O 



— 1 



oo 



-3>±0'- 






OO 
"4 



OO 



-z" 



•SiO"- 



Standard 
3±0"x.6-0" 

double. ghjed 
sash . 



-ED- 



t 



A 



13-1 4-" 



SIDES 



High side 

5' X .67' X 13.33' 

Low side 

4' X .67' X 13.33' 

Ends 

4.5' X .67' X 4.67' X 2 = 28.17 cu. ft 



HOTBED— 1 : 2 l A : 5 Mix 

= 44.65 cu. ft. 
= 35.72 cu. ft. 



Material Required 

Lehigh cement = 5 bbls. 
Sand = 2 cu. yds. 

Pebbles = 4 cu. yds. 



108.54 cu. ft. or 4 cu. yds. of concrete 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



73 



crop, sash and supporting frames can be taken 
off and other crops raised in season. 

Center bars supporting the sash frame are of 
strong material, shaped like an inverted "T." 
T irons are preferable to wood. The hotbed 
walls should be six or eight inches thick, and 
carried down below possible frost penetration. 
Inside forms can be set up, roughly supported 
by stakes and braces. After set they should 
be checked to see that the dimensions of the bed 
have been correctly laid out for the size of sash 
to be used. 

If the bed is to be used as a cold-frame, the 
proper amount of soil is thrown back into the 
excavation when concreting has been finished 
and the bed covered with the glazed sash, 
warmth of sun only being used to propagate and 
stimulate growth of the crops. To operate as a 
hotbed the excavation should be at least two 
feet deep measured from outside ground level, 



in which is packed 18 inches of fresh stable 
manure well mixed with leaves. This should be 
covered with four to six inches of rich fine soil. 
After the sash is put on the temperature of the 
inclosure will begin to rise rapidly, due to the 
heating of the manure. A thermometer should 
be placed so that it can be determined when 
the temperature has dropped to 85° or 90° 
Fahrenheit, after which seed may be planted. 

Construction details, given under the head- 
ing "Foundation and Walls," pages 57 to 
62, apply to the concrete portion of hot- 
beds. Reinforcement is not necessary unless 
the walls exceed 25 feet in length, when two 
>£-inch rods may be laid at the center of the 
wall, 4 and 18 inches respectively from the top, 
to prevent cracks from temperature changes. 
In any event it is well to bend three- or four- 
foot lengths of ^-inch rods around each corner 
to prevent cracking at corners. 





Scale Foundations 

THE producer who weighs his goods before sending them to market 
has a check on the reported weight. For this reason a weigh scale 
is a valuable asset and a concrete pit should be provided. A section 
through such a pit, shown in combination with the accompanying 
photograph, makes it evident that this type of construction is nothing 
more nor less than a simple tank, sloped toward an adequate drain. 
Manufacturers of scales usually furnish working drawings suggesting 
methods of building pits of concrete. 



^••••••••»:- 



:•••;•■•:?■---.;>•■ 



• p. ■:■ . : p.- -.- -. 



■■■!>■• 


y7=777=r, 


■P\-\ 


| 


•.-'.'£ 


- 


v - ■■ 




■ -P 









74 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




A covered concrete manure pit 



Manure Pits 



A MANURE pit is a form of tank. It should 
■*- *- be tight enough to hold the liquid contents 
of manure, which are the most valuable part. 
It is also desirable that a pit be roofed over 
to prevent excessive rains from keeping the 
manure so wet that its decomposition cannot 
be properly controlled. 

Manure pits are made in various ways, de- 
pending upon the quantity of manure to be 
handled. Some are built so that the top of 
side walls is level with the ground, some are 
built so that the floor is nearly at ground 
level and the side walls two or three feet 
above it. In the latter case the pit generally 
has an opening at one end so that wagons 
can back into it for convenience in loading 
manure. 

If any considerable quantity of manure is 
to be stored for an unusual length of time, the 
pit should have a cistern at one end into 
which excess liquids can drain and from 



which it can be pumped at intervals as neces- 
sary. 

Ordinarily the floor of a concrete manure 
pit requires no reinforcement. The side walls 
must be reinforced to take care of earth 
pressure and the pressure of manure in the 
pit. 

The capacity of a pit will be regulated by 
the stock kept. A pit 24 by 20 feet is large 
enough to accommodate the stable waste 
from about 15 cows. The pit should be lo- 
cated so that it is directly in line with the 
cleaning alley in the barn, thus making a 
straight run for the litter carrier from barn 
alleyway. 

Construction details applying to "Floors, 
Walks, and Pavements," pages 64 to 68, make 
up the essentials to be observed in building a 
concrete manure pit. Joint between wall and 
floor should be sealed with hot tar to prevent 
leakage. 




Diagram of manure pit with cleats to provide foothold for horses 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



75 



Tump 




^3 



— 3-&" 
K? intern -for 
liquid manure 



■G"T\\e 



■H 

8" 



Titch. -floor 



=<^ 




2 5^-0" 



24-J-o" 



Q 
SI 



£ht»i 



^G- utter 



15 



vS 



-I 

<\4 



-•■■ P'- ■ - 



^ Rods spaced 
G"o.c. both 
vertically and. 
horizontally 



K- • :>■ ■••- .£*.' 

L- if ~, 



T 



If soil is -firm reinforce- 
ment in floor is not re- 
quired. If soft, use wire mesh 



H 



,5£.CT10N 



This design shows a pit with a cistern. The idea of the cistern is to collect excess liquids from the 
manure and from which periodically the contents can be pumped and distributed over the fields. 
Most farmers know that the liquid content of manure contains its most valuable fertilizing 

elements 



MANURE PIT 

Pit: 1:2^:5 Mix. Cistern: 1: 2: 3 Mix 



PIT 

Side walls 225 cu. ft. 
Floor 148 cu. ft. 



373 cu. ft. or 14 cu. yds. 

Material Required 

Lehigh cement = 17.5 bbls. 
Sand = 6.5 cu. yds. 

Pebbles = 13.0 cu. yds. 



CISTERN 

= 80 cu. ft. or 3 cu. yds. 

Material Required 

Lehigh cement = 5.0 bbls. 
Sand = 1.5 cu. yds. 

Pebbles = 2.5 cu. yds. 

Reinforcement 

round rods = 612 lin. ft. or 104 lbs. 



76 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



Concrete Products 

Their Manufacture and Use 



UNDER "concrete products" a great and 
widely differing variety of units may be 
listed. Among these are concrete block, con- 
crete brick, concrete structural tile, concrete 
roofing tile, cement asbestos shingles, architec- 
tural trimstone, such as sills, lintels, medallions, 
porch columns, balustrades, bridge rails, and 
stair spindles; gravestones and grave-markers 
and burial vaults; drain tile, sewer pipe, and a 
large variety of garden and lawn furniture, 
such as seats, sun-dials, pedestals, fountains, 
flower-urns and boxes, and an almost endless 
variety of statuary. Under the same heading 
come concrete posts in numerous variety, 
including those used for ordinary fences, gate 
posts, mail-box posts, highway markers, street 
signs, railroad signals, arbor and grape-vine 
trellisis, ornamental lamp-posts or lighting 
standards, and pergolas. 

There seems an almost boundless field for 
developing new products and extending the 
uses of old ones. The rapid transformation 
of our highways from muddy lanes to per- 
manent pavement makes an inviting market 
for sign and guide posts, and the popularity 
of so-called concrete staves used for building 
concrete stave silos is not confined to the struc- 
tures for which they were originally designed, 
for with but slight modification concrete silo 
staves are now being successfully used to build 
grain bins, barns, enclosure walls, and many 
small buildings, such as garages, milk houses, 
and the like. 

Block, Brick, and Structural Tile 

Concrete block are made in a wide variety, 
although the object sought in all is to attain 
a building unit that will insure in some form 
or another at least 33 per cent of air space in 
the wall in which they are used. 

Very few home users of concrete are justified 
in attempting to make any of the ordinary 
commercialized concrete products on any con- 
siderable scale. To turn out high-grade prod- 
ucts requires an investment in plant and 
equipment that the casual user of concrete 
is not prepared to make. 

There seems no limit to the structural pos- 
sibilities of the ordinary run of concrete prod- 



ucts, such as block, brick, structural tile, and 
architectural trimstone. New uses and new 
applications for many of these products are 
being developed daily. Every new use means 
a new market previously untouched. One of 
the greatest immediate markets for concrete 
block and concrete structural tile is for build- 
ing concrete garages and houses. Especially 
designed machines are used in the manu- 
facture of the principal concrete products in 
the structural field, and such products as drain 
tile, sewer pipe, and culvert pipe are made by 
machine. 

Choosing a Machine 

Whether concrete products are manufactured 
for limited personal use by the maker or to 
meet commercial needs, their quality, as that 
of any other concrete, depends upon the ob- 
servance of good concreting practice. In select- 
ing a machine for the manufacture of any 
concrete product great care should be exer- 
cised so as to insure its adaptability to the 
production of a commodity of high standard 
meeting all of the present-day requirements. 
A block machine, for example, should be 
chosen that will permit the use of just as wet 
a mixture as possible without causing slump 
or deformation of the product when removed 
from the mold. It should be adaptable to 
making various patterns of molding and trim 
and concrete brick, unless the manufacturer 
intends to cater to the concrete brick market, 
in which case a machine exclusively for brick 
should be purchased. 

More and more is the tendency toward dis- 
carding the early type of imitation rock-faced 
block and producing instead a product that 
rivals in beauty and appearance natural cut 
stone. Since many of these effects, both in 
brick and block, are produced by using facing 
mixtures, choice of a machine must be made 
with consideration for making a faced product. 
It may be necessary to have variations in 
types of machines for the same product, so 
that a block having certain types of air space 
can be manufactured to meet a popular de- 
mand already created in the community. 
There must always be provision for making 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



77 









Concrete blocks 
rival in beauty 
and appearance 
the finest cut 
stone. They have 
the advantages of 
being fire resistant 
and permanent 




reasonable adjustment as to thickness of wall 
and height of courses, the latter in order to 
secure the pleasing effect of alternating wide 
and narrow courses, as well as to provide for 
courses of unusual height when certain build- 
ing requirements demand it. Adjustments 
should also provide for varying length of block 
to make units that will fit any dimensions of an 
architectural plan. Concrete block are made 
by either the pressed or the tamped process. 
What has been said of concrete block and 
the machines used to manufacture them ap- 
plies in the same general way to concrete brick 
and to concrete structural tile. The appearance 
of a properly designed concrete building made 
of any of these three units can easily surpass 
that of any other type of construction of like 
cost. 

Mixtures to Use 

All concrete products are made of either 
ordinary concrete or mortar mixtures. Where 
a true concrete mixture is used, the maximum 
size of coarse aggregate used seldom exceeds 
$4 inch, and in some cases not more than y£ 
inch. However, in the manufacture of large 
sewer and culvert pipe and drain tile, the shell 
thickness of the pipe governs the size of aggre- 
gates. In the small sizes of drain tile and in 
the manufacture of concrete brick so-called 
mortar mixtures are used. These should not 
be leaner than 1 : 3. 

The maximum size of aggregate is often 
governed by the use to which the product is 
to be put, the kind of surface finish it is to 
have, or the after-treatment to be given it in 



order to secure a certain surface appearance. 
In the commercial manufacture of concrete 
products capacity production is demanded, 
so that mixtures used generally contain less 
water than would be permissible in ordinary 
concrete construction. This deficiency should 
never be extreme. All concrete products 
should be made of as wet a mixture as is pos- 
sible to be used with the machine in question, 
and because of the necessity of using less water in 
the manufacture of some products, greater care 
must be taken to protect them while curing. 

Hydrated Lime 

In the manufacture of some concrete prod- 
ucts, particularly block, a small quantity of 
hydrated lime is sometimes added to the mix- 
ture in order to give the product a lighter 
color. The quantity to be used should be that 
which will not lower the quality of the prod- 
uct below the required standard. 

If waterproofing compounds are used, the 
method of using should be according to the 
manufacturer's recommendations, which lay 
particular stress on recognized fundamentals 
of good concrete practice. 

Machine mixing of concrete for products 
manufacture is by all means to be preferred to 
hand mixing. 

Block and brick are given distinctive facings 
by using different mixtures than are employed 
in the body. These mixtures contain selected 
aggregates, often with a small amount of 
mineral coloring-matter combined with the 
cement in order to produce a particular sur- 
face texture and color. Facing and body 
mixtures should be very nearly of the same 
consistency. All materials of the facing mix- 
ture should be thoroughly mixed while dry, 
and the same quantity of water and of color- 
ing-matter should be used in each batch, 




© Underwood & Underwood 

Concrete blocks are cured by spraying them with water 
so that hardening takes place gradually 



78 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



otherwise they will vary in color. See tables 
on page 183. 

Both block and brick machines are available 
in hand- and power-operated types. In each 
type provision is made for air space in the 
wall, and the means by which this is secured 
varies widely. 

Block that extend through the wall are 
termed "one-piece block." The outer part is 
called the face section and the inner part the 
back section, and the partitions that unite the 
face to the back are called webs. All such block 
are correctly termed "hollow block." There 
are types of block which permit laying a wall 
having a continuous air space. Such block 
are known as "two-piece block." The more 
common forms are designated as "T" shape, 
"L" shape, and "V" shape, because their 
general outlines conform to the shape of these 
letters. In all systems of block construction 
the open spaces are arranged to form continu- 
ous flues from the bottom to the top of a wall. 
They may be used to ventilate a structure, and 
for placing electric wiring and service pipes. 

Products Should be Tested 

Tests are particularly necessary on such 
concrete products as block, brick, and all 
kinds of pipe and tile, to determine that a 



uniformly high-grade product is being made. 
An indication of the strength of any product 
is the fracture of the aggregate when the prod- 
uct is broken. This indicates that the cement 
has performed its full binding function and the 
product is as strong as can be with the aggre- 
gate used. 

Such concrete products as ornamental gar- 
den or lawn furniture present an opportunity 
to the home worker to display considerable 
ingenuity and will give him useful and lasting 
returns for his efforts. 

There is considerable difference between the 
molding of structural units and the successful 
casting of ornamental products. Very small 
imperfections may seriously mar their ap- 
pearance. Great care should be taken in the 
preparation of the molds and in the placing 
of the concrete. For thin objects a selected 
aggregate should be used throughout, but 
where the thickness of the concrete will per- 
mit, a backing made with a plain aggregate 
will prove an economy. 

Much of the success in making ornamental 
products depends upon perfect molds and the 
methods by which they are filled. The con- 
crete mixture must be somewhat wetter than 
would be used in ordinary work, so that it can 
be made to settle to all parts of the form. 




Section through Vase 
showing Reinforcement 






The information about this layout is found on the next page 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



79 



Wire these rods at 
all intersections 
d 




Instead of plain steel rods or wires for reinforcement, ex- 
panded metal or wire mesh may be used, and in many cases 
will be preferable. Whenever expanded metal or wire mesh 
is used for such purposes, it will be necessary to cut the flat 
sheets so that the reinforcement when bent up will conform 
to the lines of the product. This is called developing the sheet 
of reinforcement. After the necessary cuts have been made, 
the sheet should be bent along the dotted lines, as shown 
on page 78, and the laps securely wired with black tie 
wire. If the bowl is larger in diameter than the one shown, 
a greater number of radial cuts may be required 

When the bowl is flat, such as the one referred to, these 
radial cuts may be made as shown, but if the bowl is hemi- 
spherical, it will be necessary to cut the sheet as shown. 
This illustration shows a convenient method for laying out 
such developed sheets. In this case the flat sheet is composed 
of eight equal sectors, two and one-half of which are shown 
above. When these sectors are bent up so that their edges 
meet, they will form a hemisphere. The length of the flat 
sector along the center line is equal to the length of the 
arc of a circle shown in the upper part of the drawing. In 
this example it was found convenient to divide the sector 
into eight equal parts, each 2$i inches long. The 90 degree 
vertical arc is also divided into eight equal parts, the length 
of each part measured on the circumference being equal to 



234 inches. The dimension at the outer edge of the flat sec- 
tor, 11 inches, is equal to one-eighth of the circumference at 
the outer edge of the reinforcement at p when the sectors 
are bent into the form of a hemisphere. The dimension 
10.79 inches is equal to one-eighth of the circumference at 
the point (7) in the half vertical section through the wire 
mesh with a radius of 13.73 inches. The dimension 10.17 
inches is equal to one-eighth of the circumference at (6) 
when the radius is 12.94 inches. Each successive dimension 
toward the center of a sheet at (0) is equal to one-eighth of 
the circumference at its respective point shown in the half 
vertical section. The developed sheets for hemispherical 
bowls of any diameter may be laid out in a similar manner. 
A practical illustration of developing these sheets may be 
had by cutting an orange in two equal parts and slicing the 
peel into eight equal parts from the circumference of the 
orange to the bottom, and laying the eight sectors thus 
formed flat on a table. The shape of the orange peel sectors 
will be almost identical with the sectors shown in plan 
above 

The developed sheet for square bowls is shown on page 78 
It is important to wire all edges of developed sheets firmly 
in order to secure the necessary strength required from 
the reinforcement, that is, to get the effect of continuous 
reinforcement 



80 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



?ih- 



50".— 

1 "T 



ii 



ri 



-i_ | H 



fc2 



4-" 

■* > 



Si" 



^r 



TT 



■IN 

(M 



18" 



Hij 



to 






6^ 



ELECTION OF £>EISCH 



1 — A 4- f« — — »\ 4 Y — 

Ehd Elevation 



* 




50" 


T 










Z3 * 


i .1 is." 

9g |3ifi j 


h 


{ 


* 






' 


T 3 












* 




- 8 


2 - 


1 

t- 

i 


If deep 


, &" , 











Inverted Plan, of Slab n , , , . r 

/rr Blocks suspended from 
— s " ~ 1M ^ cleats to form mortise 




/n concrete slab 
;— .^Block's 



C-' d -, „ "—Working Platform 

^ECTTOM THRU 5JLAB FORM , I, 



dut out 
of piece 
of 4"x4" 




Cleats to 
hold top ^ 
piece of ~* 
</[ form in 



4" M-J -4 4" — 




Flak of Fo r m with 
Top Fiece removed 



Section 6 ~G 



Section: F-f 



Details for a garden bench. The form for the seat slab con- 
sists of part a. This has mitered joints and as assembled is 
held in position on the workbench by small blocks. Part a 
when made of the shape shown should always terminate in a 
small member, c. If the curve is brought down to a feather 
edge, the concrete soon slivers off. Mortises are formed by 
holding part d in position shown by means of cleats e extend- 
ing across the top of form 

Forms for legs consist of/, g, ft, j, ft, /, and m. Piece/ is cut 
out one piece by a band saw and the surface smoothed with 
sand paper. Brackets are formed by nailing parts ft to sides. 
Sides are cut out at top for bracket. Part / is nailed to parts 
ft. Part t is nailed to working platform in position, the legs 
right side up. Concrete is placed in form to the top, after 
which piece ft is set in place and opening / filled with con- 
crete. Care should be taken to have tenon / and mortise d 
in proper relative position 




CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



81 



1 


J 






= ] . 




C 

X 




r 

A. 


£?l 9 


h 












V 


15 








c 




Vm| •-., 






■uj J 








»~i * 



Elevatioh 

9"- 






r?m 



^— 



M iirc Joint- 



tn 



tnKO 



m 



DETAIL OF?IDe"C" 




Form Assembled 3howum& 
Co/icrete m Place 



Section A-A 



Design with form details 
for concrete flower-box. De- 
tails of making and assem- 
bling the core are shown to 
illustrate the manner in 
which this box is cast upside 
down 




Simple Box with Depressed Panel 



/~ 8 S ound rod 




Plan of Form and Core Assembled 





Design for large concrete flower urn or "bay tree" box,' 

showing form details necessary to secure the panel and 

molding effect illustrated in the finished elevation 



Elevation of Bay Tree -Box- 




Top Vi'evv of one 5ide of Form 

(.Tour of these required) 



Half Section, "through 
Ex-tenor Form 



Interior Ilevatibn of one Side of Forrn 



82 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




Different types of concrete trimstone 



A great variety of surface finish is possible 
through the selection of suitable materials and 
various combinations of them that the in- 
genious worker will devise. In small as well as 
the larger and more ornate products, colored 
sands and selected aggregates, such as marble 
chips, granite screenings, mica spar, etc., are 
used in combination with cement and color- 
ing-matter. See pages 176 and 177, under 
the head of " Surface Finish of Concrete." 

Architectural Trimstone 

Concrete trimstone or, as it is sometimes 
called, architectural trimstone, is the name 
given to concrete units which are used in some 
way to ornament, embellish, or perhaps build 
the entire face of a structure. If used only as 
ornament, the stone takes the form of trim 
details of windows and doorways, such as sills 
and lintels or corner-stones, in combination 
with ordinary brick or other masonry. Or 



perhaps medallions are set into the face of 
a wall, or such architectural details as porch 
columns, rails, and spindles worked out in 
precast concrete. Usually designs for such 
ornamental stone are furnished by the archi- 
tect, just as he would furnish designs for cut- 
ting of natural stone. As a matter of fact, 
concrete trimstone is now carved by stone- 
cutters just as natural stone is cut. 

Fire-proof Roofing Materials 

The use of fire-proof roofing materials, such 
as concrete roofing tile, concrete slabs for roof- 
ing and domes, and cement asbestos shingles, 
is becoming more and more prevalent. A 
steadily increasing number of ordinances com- 
pel the use of fire-proof roofing materials. As 
a consequence, the fire risk in these localities 
is greatly reduced. 

All these products are among the most fire- 
resistive types of roofing known, and through 




Concrete slabs for domed roof make a very interesting 
treatment 




One type of concrete asbestos tile 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



83 




Concrete asbestos tile is rapidly replacing the old style shingles. 
It is fireproof and permanent 



rapid strides in developing methods of manu- 
facture are more than holding their own in 
competition with other types. 

Concrete Drain Tile 

Drain tile, as the name implies, is used to 
drain wet lands. Concrete drain tile have 
come into deserved popularity only within 
comparatively recent years. However, they are 
by no means a new product, as they were 
made and used in this country fifty or more 
years ago, when cement was imported. The 
general requirements of cement and aggregates 
used in making drain tile are the same as other 
concrete products except that the thin wall of 
concrete tile in the smaller sizes prevents the 
use of large aggregate. Practically all sizes 
of concrete pipe and tile 12 inches or less are 
made by machine. Larger sizes are often 
made by hand, the concrete being tamped in 
the forms, which consist of two metal cylinders, 
one as much smaller than the other as is neces- 



sary to provide required wall thickness. In 
the larger sizes of pipe, such as are used for cul- 
verts, reinforcement, usually in the form of 
mesh, is used. 

It is characteristic of concrete pipe and tile 
to be true to form because they are not sub- 
jected to any after-treatment that will pro- 
duce warping or distortion when taken from 
the mold such as sometimes results in a product 
that has to be finished by burning in a kiln. 

Surface Appearance 

A section of concrete pipe or tile that has been 
made of a concrete mixture having the proper 
amount of water will show web-like markings 
on the surface after the form is removed. Mark- 
ings are caused by water penetrating between 
the surfaces of contact of concrete and casing. 
If the tile is made on a machine with a revolv- 
ing packer head, the outside of the tile will 
show a web-like marking and the inside will 
show the marks of the packer head. 




Concrete drain tile is made in various shapes and sizes 



84 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




sV 



fart elevation of fence 
with tapering posts and 
wire fencing 



-44- 



Note: 

When casting posts for 
fences with woven wire 
netting omit core block's 
from ^an| mold 

Fences are sometimes built by stretching 
fencing wire to concrete posts. In other 
cases concrete boards or lumber are used 
to close the space between posts. This 
drawing shows a gang mold for casting 
the posts and also the details of the con- 
crete boards when they are used instead 
of ordinary wire fencing. In the latter 
case the posts are cast with recesses on 
opposite sides to receive the ends of the 
panels 



Plam or GAna Kolp 



FENCE POST 
POST 1:2:4 Mix 

6" X 6" X 6' 0" 

.5 X .5 X 6 = 1.50 cu. ft. or .055 cu. yd. of concrete 

Material per Post 

Lehigh cement = .083 bbl. 
Sand = .025 cu. yd. 

Pebbles = .049 cu. yd. 

4 Vs" round bars = 9 lbs. of steel 



Concrete Fence Posts 

Concrete posts are manufactured in con- 
junction with other products at regularly 
established plants and also by the home 
worker. 

There are so many uses for posts of various 
sizes and shapes about the home, particularly 
on the farm, that it is not surprising that the 
home worker tests out his ability as a concrete 
worker on posts. They are made in various 
sectional shapes, but square, rectangular, and 
round are most common. 

If one pushes hard against a post at* the 
top, the concrete on the side where the force 
is applied is in tension, as described under the 
section discussing the reinforcing of concrete, 
on page 170. Reinforcement is placed in a 
concrete post near the outer surfaces because 



FENCE RAILING 
1:2:4 Mix 

.17 X .67 X 8 = .912 cu. ft. or .034 cu. yd. 

Material per Railing 

Lehigh cement = .051 bbl. 
Sand = .015 cu. yd. 

Pebbles = .030 cu. yd. 

2 Y 2 " round bars = 10^ lbs. of steel 

the outer surfaces are the first portion of the 
post that have to resist this tension or strain. 
Reinforcement placed at the center is of very 
little value unless the amount used is rela- 
tively excessive. A much smaller quantity 
correctly placed near the surface is much more 
effective. If the post section is round, the 
four rods should be in positions corresponding 
with the corners of a square. In posts of 
square, rectangular, or triangular sections the 
rods should be near each corner. The ac- 
companying tables give various dimensions for 
posts, also recommendations as to reinforc- 
ing. The tables specify round rods, but square 
twisted rods of the same net sectional area 
may be used if desired. Several strands of 
wire twisted to form a single rod are marketed 
for post reinforcement and are convenient and 
satisfactory material to use. Barbed wire and 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



85 





MATERIALS REQUIRED FOR CONCRETE LINE POSTS OF SEVERAL DIMENSIONS 












Materials 




Volume 

of 

Post 

in 
Cubic 
Feet 


Weight 

of 
Post 

in 
Pounds 




Amount of 

Reinforcing 

Metal 

Required 

for Each 

Post 


Mortar Mixture 1 : 3 


Concrete Mixture 1 : 2 


: 3 




Top 


Bottom 


No. 

Posts 

Per 
Barrel 
Lehigh 
Cement 


For 10 Posts 


No. 

Posts 

Per 
Barrel 
Lehigh 
Cement 


For 10 Post 


s 


Length 


Sacks 
Lehigh 
Cement 


Cu. Ft. 
Sand 


Sacks 
Lehigh 
Cement 


Cu. Ft. 
Sand 


Cu. Ft. 
Pebbles 
or Stone 


7'0" 


3"x4" 


5"x4" 


0.8 


115 




Four 


14.0 


2.8 


8.5 


19.5 


2.1 


4.2 


6.2 


8'0" 


3"x4" 


5"x4" 


0.9 


131 


X' 


Round Rods 


12.3 


3.2 


9.7 


17.1 


2.4 


4.7 


7.1 


7'0" 


4"x4" 


5"\5" 


1.0 


143 




Four 


11.3 


3.5 


10.6 


15.8 


2.6 


5.1 


7.7 


8'0" 


4"x4" 


5"x5" 


1.1 


163 


H' 


Round Rods 


9.9 


4.0 


12.1 


13.8 


2.9 


5.9 


8.8 


7'0" 


5"\5" 


6"x6" 


1.5 


213 




Four 


7.6 


5.3 


15.8 


10.6 


3.8 


7.7 


11.6 


8'0" 


5"x5" 


6"x6" 


1.7 


243 


W 


Round Rods 


6.6 


6.0 


18.0 


9.2 


4.4 


8.8 


13.2 



DIMENSIONS OF CORNER POSTS AND MATERIALS NEEDED 



Dimensions 








Materials 


Volume 
of 


Weight 


Amount of 


Mortar Mixture 


1 : 3 


Concrete Mixture 1 : 2 


: 3 






Posts 
in 


of 
Posts 


Reinforcing 

Metal 




































Size 


Cubic 
Feet 


in 
Pounds 


Required 


No. 
Posts 

Per 
Barrel 


For 1 


Post 


No. 
Posts 

Per 
Barrel 




For 1 Post 




Length 


Sacks 


Cu. Ft. 


Sacks 


Cu Ft 


Cu. Ft. 












Lehigh 


Lehigh 




Lehigh 


Lehigh 




Pebbles 












Cement 


Cement 




Cement 


Cement 




or Stone 


8'0" 


6"x 6" 


2.0 


288 


Four 


5.6 


0.7 


2.1 


7.8 


0.5 


1.0 


1.6 


8'0" 


7"x 7" 


2.7 


392 


V*" 


4.1 


0.95 


2.9 


5.7 


0.7 


1.4 


2.1 


8' 6" 


7"x 7" 


2.9 


416 


Round Rods 


3.9 


1.0 


3.1 


5.4 


0.8 


1.5 


2.2 


8'0" 


8"x 8" 


3.6 


512 


Four 


3.1 


1.3 


3.8 


4.4 


0.9 


1.8 


2.8 


8' 6" 


8"x 8" 


3.8 


544 


H" 


3.0 


1.35 


4.0 


4.1 


1.0 


2.0 


2.9 


9'0" 


8"x 8" 


4.0 


575 


Round Rods 


2.8 


1.4 


4.3 


3.9 


1.1 


2.1 


3.1 


8'0" 


10"xl0" 


5.6 


799 


Four 


2.0 


2.0 


5.9 


2.8 


1.4 


2.9 


4.3 


8' 6" 


10"xl0" 


5.9 


850 


H" 


1.9 


2.1 


6.3 


2.6 


1.5 


3.1 


4.6 


9'0" 


10"xl0" 


6.2 


899 


Round Rods 


1.8 


2.2 


6.7 


2.5 


1.6 


3 '.2 


4.9 


10' 0" 


5"x 5" 


1.7 


250 


Four Y% 


6.4 


0.6 


1.9 


9.0 


0.4 


0.9 


1.4 


12' 0" 


5"x 5" 


2.1 


300 


Round Rods 


5.4 


0.7 


2.2 


7.5 


0.5 


1.1 


1.6 



similar scrap metal should not be used because 
they are not satisfactory reinforcing materials. 

There are many types of fence post molds 
on the market. It is perfectly practicable to 
make posts in wooden molds, but in general it is 
best to use one of the commercial types of 
molds if any considerable quantity of posts 
is to be made. 1:2:3 mixture is recom- 
mended for concrete fence posts. 

Some types of commercial fence post molds 
are filled by setting the molds vertically and 
filling from the end. Other types are made 
with one open side and are filled while lying in 
a horizontal position. In the type of mold 
that is filled from the end air-bubbles can be 
forced out of the concrete by jogging the 
mold while filling or tapping the mold gently. 
The posts should not be removed from the 
molds until they are strong enough to permit 
handling without cracking. Under favorable 



conditions the posts may be taken from the 
mold at the end of twenty-four hours. They 
should not be up-ended and stood in piles 
with others until they have lain several days, 
during which period they should be sprayed 
frequently or in some other way kept moist 
so as to hasten curing. 

If a wooden mold is used, it should be built 
so that wedges and blocks only will be neces- 
sary to hold all parts assembled, thus making 
it possible to take the mold apart without 
hammering and injuring the posts. Con- 
crete fence posts should not be used until they 
are at least a month old. 

Corner and gate posts are often cast in 
place. Such posts may be used for lighting 
standards. A numerous variety, both as to de- 
sign and surface finish, can be made, but great 
care should be taken in the preparation of the 
molds. 



86 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



Tsnel raised j? 




Section a-a 



iy 






Sect/on A-A 




5ectiom AtA 



V , ,. 



Veep 




Section A-A 



TopView- 



Fv=^ 




V — r 



Tof-View 




Tor View- 




Top Vie v 




EiEWTIOrl 




Elevatiow 




Colored &= 3-24"- 



en 



-£6" ■ 



Eliyati. 




Elewtioh 



Designs for ornamental posts used for gateways or entranceways. The use of concrete brick is shown in connection with 
two of the designs as a suggestion for a simple way to secure variety. Very pleasing effects can be secured if the modern 
faced concrete brick is properly combined with the concrete to secure variation. None of the sections show reinforcement 
because the designs in these cases are relatively massive. If the posts are intended for use for holding entranceway gates, such 
as are commonly made of heavy ornamental iron work, 5& or M inch round rods should be placed near the corner of each 

post and about 2 inches from its outer face 




Concrete ornamental posts marking entranceways can be made very attractive by using brick in their construction 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



87 





Illustrations giving suggestions for building heavy monolithic concrete corner post for line fence. Use a 1 : 2 : 4 mixture, 
letting forms stand without jarring in any way for four days. Hooks can be set in the concrete to allow attachment 

of a wire fence 




Practical use of corner or gate post 



88 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



Concrete Post- 



^L 



Copinq 



7- 



B nek wo rkm a y "be 
inssrf-ed in panel 
if desired — « 



Depressed 



pane] 



ElEVATIOM 



X 



1 6" 



TT 



9^3" 




-#77^7772 



Plan of Wall — Coping Removed 

This sketch for concrete retaining wall has been designed to show how steps leading up to the level of the home grounds may 
be built with the wall. At the same time it suggests by a detail how brick panels may be substituted in place of panel 
effect secured by depression in the concrete. All retaining walls, no matter what their height, should be designed with a 
minimum thickness of 12 inches at the top, the thickness toward the base being increased as calculations show necessary 
to retain the depth of fill back of them. Reinforcement is required 




A simple yet pleasing concrete retaining wall. Notice the concrete construction used in both house and garage 

1; 8i0 " i 






! ii 
i H ii : 

-LU.U 

I ! 

I 



-4 




L J. 



_JJ 



y 



-Form boards rthick 




$*Z"Endform 



-Wire -fabric ITTZa 
reinforcing ,!£=-*) 



i"rfofcrr ) ^2"x4"5tudding24'b.c. 
3-2"x4" Pieces i-0"o.c- 




A simple post and panel 
fence built by first setting 
the posts and forming the 
panels by plastering sev- 
eral coats on wire fabric. 
As is shown in an- 
other detail, the panels 
can be built by setting 
form sections between 
posts and depositing con- 
crete in the usual way 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



89 



f-i'^p 





-^ECTIOM A-A 



5ECTI0M A- A. 



( 


^Z 


I 

a"* 

1 








/ 







Section A-A 



Sectiok A- A. 



Top View 



Top View 



top View 



r 




r- L 




h«M 



~>: 



"* 



1—2 





TopVilw 



Top View 



1 




H 22" 

ZLEVATIOIf ELEVATIOH ELEVATIOrt ELEVAT10H rLEVATlOM 

Designs for concrete posts, two of which are commonly called near to their corners as possible. Simple though quite effec- 

rubble masonry construction. This is done by embedding tive ornament for such posts can easily be secured by careful 

irregularly shaped stones in a somewhat mushy concrete thoughtful planning of the forms, which involves little more 

mixture as the forms are filled than combining depressed and raised panels and changing 

If concrete posts are to be used to carry the load of heavy the section by simple variations in the use of common wood 

gates, they should be properly reinforced with four rods as molding 

2'k4" Studs, holxed. or wire. el 
xo prevent spreading of forms-. 




-R.AK OF" 

Cownu FoKn 



^Pjlaii: of Wall Form 



Plm or Conri& 



Form details, together with section and elevation, showing two of the other opposite sides to receive the ends of the 
method of constructing simple yet attractive concrete en- intermediate panels. Posts can be either monolithic or laid 
closure wall. The posts are precast and recesses provided in up of concrete block, as one detail of the sketch suggests 



90 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



£>■*! 





] f-Copinq +o be precast 
unite about 3 1 0"lor\g 

3'-0" 



Uli ^v rr-rrr^^ 7 ^ 




•.r.\p;;,y'..7- :r 

yy =/-/=/>/=' Cr~6 ' Concrete 



tile drain. 



.>":'£>' -".'pf -"p 

p 



P : • -. •. ... : p.- ;-• .:: ft ; • .> : »£ .' 






SECT10H3-3 



Suggested design combining monolithic concrete 
and cement brick for retaining wall 



Section A-/4 



2 n 3olt-, 



?/;;■>/ 






^-§ 



ZZ 2 g - - 1 Z 



s_ 



5£CTiorf /A -A 




wire 



SECTION C-C. 



3" ,i" 



ZZZg Cj^ 



Strips SI, 
nailed io \i\) 
Sides -s 






_^j 



^ zgzSz 



SECTION £>-& 




Section D-D 



Elevation of post and forms for its construction 
Revealed aggregate surface is suggested 




Elevation - 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



91 




A concrete fence constructed of units made with gang molds 






Slocks 



^f 



Piaa 
Bill of Material 



\-Piece S-0"long,widthtapfri'r7g from 3" to 5" as shown. 

]-Z" Block 3V4" and \-Z" block 4'toS". 

4-1' Blocks 

3 -Pieces of 2V 10* 

■SirtGi-E TB.ncE Fosr Molv 

Mold for single concrete fence post. A gang of molds like 
this can be made by reversing each particular section as 
added to the gang. In building a gang mold to cast posts. 



/Z"f.\0" 



2", 10'-} 



D 

Blevsiiotx- 



the bottom is usually omitted and a bottom provided for the 
entire gang by setting it on a platform while the mold is 
being filled. The illustration on this page shows another style 
of posts 

The mix used should never be weaker than a 1:2:4 and 
should be sufficiently wet, although not sloppy. For at least 
two days the post should be protected from sun and wind to 
keep it from drying out. On the fifth day it may be slid 
gently onto a level surface covered with burlap or straw and 
sprinkled with water. In two weeks stackVmtdoors to finish 
curing 



! 



;. <■ ~~ 



r. ■..<■ i 




I 

'A I 9lp ^' 



[i ■■ = ■ 



-f 



V/////M////////A 




Section at P-P 



Simple form details showing methods of joining corners. 
At the upper left hand is a form with square ends made up 
of the four sides a. When the sides are removed from the 
object in the direction of the arrowheads, there is no possi- 
bility of binding 

At the upper right hand is a form composed of four sides a 
mitered. This type of form requires a little more care in 
order that the miter be cut true. The use of forms of this 
kind is usually confined to concrete objects that have pro- 
jecting surfaces which would prevent the sides a from being 
withdrawn or removed in the direction of the arrowheads 



At the lower left hand corner are various details of a form 
with squared ends composed of the sides a and b. Sides b 
have cleats c and d nailed to their edges. These serve to hold 
sides a securely in position while concrete is being placed. 
Cleat c should not overhang or project beyond side a any 
more than necessary. It should have a good bearing sur- 
face on side a. This will permit withdrawing side b in the 
direction of the arrowheads with the least amount of bind- 
ing or sticking due to swelling of the wood when the parts 
are wet. If the overhang of cleat c is as great as shown in 
cleat d, greater difficulty will be experienced in withdrawing 
side b because of this large overhang, as shown at g and / 
At the lower right hand is a form illustrating use of a com- 
bination of squared ends and mitered joints. The upper part 
consists of four sides a. The lower portion of the form con- 
sists of pieces c and d, which are nailed together, while the 
piece b is nailed to piece a. If mitered joints were not used 
at the lower portion of this form, it would take the shape as 
shown in the upper right-hand corner of section P-P. The 
part d would have to be nailed to parts c and b in order to 
secure the required surface finish at g. Such a form when 
withdrawn in the direction of the arrowhead would bind on 
the object at g and would be difficult to withdraw without 
injuring the corners of the concrete. This could be overcome 
by cutting off the ends of the pieces b and c as shown in the 
lower right-hand corner of section P-P with pieces b' and c' 
meeting at the corner and leaving the open space h. This 
arrangement would form a true edge for the concrete product 
and the forms could be removed without difficulty. Unless 
the joints at h were tight, it would allow water carrying 
cement to leak out of the form. To prevent this, pieces b 
and c are carried out and mitered as shown at b" and c"at the 
lower left-hand corner of section P-P 

Mitered joints should be used in every case where there 
is even a slight projection beyond any one surface of the 
concrete object 



92 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




Placing concrete in cylindric steel form for gate-post. This 

form is a piece of old smokestack, and the intention is to 

leave it in place after it has been filled. One of the men is 

setting bolts to provide fastenings for the gate 



A clothespole is made in exactly the same manner as a 
gate-post, either round or square, and built to a convenient 
height. The wooden hangers can be taken down to pre- 
vent them from becoming dirty or weatherbeaten 



There are many other concrete units which 
can be placed under the head of "Concrete 
Products." The details for those already 
shown and described can be applied readily to 
practically all of the others. 



Study "Fundamental Principles," on pages 
153 to 185, which contains all of the necessary 
preliminary information for making concrete 
units, before proceeding with the plans or the 
designs shown. 




Concrete block enclosure walls can be made attractive 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



93 



-»--» W "-' " 




tew' X V^.J 




X.1I ^V| i^^B f mm " 1 










~~ . 



A clean water supply and healthy stock go together 

Troughs, Tanks, and Bins 



ONE of the largest fields of usefulness for 
concrete is in building tanks, troughs, bins, 
cisterns, or similar containers intended to hold 
liquids and many dry materials, such as sand, 
gravel, ore, coal, etc. Watertightness is the 
prime essential of any structure intended to 
hold liquid. It is very important, therefore, 
that concrete for such structures be made with 
greater care in selecting, proportioning, mix- 
ing, and placing than would be necessary with 
other classes of work. It is easier to make 
concrete watertight at the time of construction 
than it is to make leaky concrete watertight 
after the work has been completed. 

Usually one of the first pieces of concrete to 
be attempted by the farmer is 
a concrete watering trough or 
tank for the stock. This sketch 
shows all the details of con- 
struction, includ 
ing forms 



Hog wallows, dipping vats, and manure pits 
properly fall into the classification of tanks. 

Tanks, troughs, bins, and other similar 
structures may be square, oblong, or round. 
Some are built below ground, partly above 
ground, or entirely above ground, and in the 
last case are sometimes considerably elevated. 
This is true of water towers, standpipes, and 
supply tanks that are to hold water to be 
delivered under pressure. Water tanks for 
domestic farm supply are often built on top 
of concrete silos. This makes it possible to 
have running water in any farm building and a 
supply of water under pressure in case of fire. 

WATERING TROUGH 
1:2:3 Mix 

SIDES 

2.25 
.42 




Material Required 

Lehigh cement = 1.50 bbls. 
Sand = .45 cu. ycU 

Pebbles = .66 cu. yd. 



1.8900 sq. ft. 



BOTTOM 

2.17 

.5 

1.085 sq.ft. 1.89 sq. ft. 
1.09 sq. ft. 

2.98 sq.ft. in 
cross-section 
Assume length of 8 feet for trough: 
2.98 X 8 = 23.84 cu. ft. or .86 cu. yd. 



94 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




\o±o" 






STOCK TR.OU(rH 
fli^." Pi'pg to Heafi'nq Chamber 



24-' 









/ , 




_ 




/ 


•uv' 


^= y 




4 










1 






= LH 


_ 



* fHedVinq 

Chsrnber 



DoorZOxzo" 



TLAli 



\o*-o" 



v: i 



<» 

— _ 



3"5 leeves 



P •. r". " c. ' • p. 1 ' :<»i' •' c: -•»*. • ■■' : p- : ■■• t>- ■ ■'.' •&: ■ •.■«•-.•• 



<^2"W<srste pipe 




-Pipe 



^ZCTIOti 



Ash pit^s C Grratlnq 



This sketch suggests a method of building a tank heater of concrete to warm the contents of an ordinary stock watering 

trough or tank such as would be placed in the barnyard 



In extremely cold weather stock cannot 
satisfy their thirst from the watering tank 
where they have to crack the ice to get a 
drink. They do not want warm water, but 
they do not want water so cold as to prevent 
them from drinking all they require. 

The heating compartment is essentially a 
small stove in which is built a radiator coil 
that is connected with the tank and permits 
circulating warm water as heated in the coil. 
The intake for the radiator is a pipe line lying 
along the bottom of the tank, and the discharge 
a short piece from the radiator entering the 
tank near its upper part. The particular pre- 
caution to observe in building a heating com- 
partment like this is to use fire-resistive aggre- 
gates or preferably make the inside form for 
the heating chamber of sheet steel or fire brick. 
The concrete must be well reinforced and 
particular pains taken to make watertight 
connections between heating chamber and the 
concrete tank. 

Square or oblong tanks of various kinds are 
easier for the home worker to build because 
form construction is simpler than for circular 



shapes. Where tanks are used for commercial 
or industrial purposes, special metal forms 
similar to those used in building silos, circular 
coal pockets, and grain elevators are generally 
used. Small tanks or troughs can very readily 
be built by the ordinary home worker. In 
planning to build a trough or tank such as 
would be used for stock watering, concreting 
should be continuous until the work has been 
finished. This is the surest way to prevent 
construction seams that might cause leakage. 
The pressure exerted by the contents makes it 





• f JL. - ' 


, r. -i.V 








K i 


^fjHgS 






b * " W ~ * 






<30 












H 




V ; v** 


■;;: ■'•;r;:--;>.":' ; 


* • " V .-^f^'"' 





A small drinking trough which can be made by any 
one handy with tools 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



95 




A watering trough with a paved area around it 



necessary to reinforce tanks and bins. Each 
structure of this type is a problem in itself, as 
will be seen by referring to various illustra- 
tions which show different reinforcement re- 
quirements. 

For small tanks, either steel rods or mesh 
fabric may be used. If fabric is used instead 
of rods, be careful to see that the net quantity 
of steel in the mesh corresponds to the quantity 
of steel called for in the designs. 

In all tanks and bins both vertical and hori- 
zontal reinforcement is required. Corner rods 
should be provided. 

For small open troughs and tanks, such as 
are used for watering cattle in the barnyard or 
pasture lot, it is necessary to provide against 
the pressure of ice by sloping or battering the 
inside wall face of the tank. This slope will 



ease the pressure of ice due to freezing of 
water, and will relieve some of the bursting 
pressure and keep it from injuring the tank. 

The consistence of concrete should be what 
may best be described as jelly-like. Spading 
between forms and against form faces must 
be thorough in order to produce a dense con- 
crete. Only in this way can water tightness be 
actually assured. Forms should not be re- 
moved until several days after the last con- 
crete has been placed, and during this time the 
work should be kept covered with wet hay 
or straw, or in some other way to keep the 
concrete from drying out. The work should in 
no way be disturbed until the concrete is hard. 
A failure to spade the concrete thoroughly 
may result in irregularities in the finished 
surface. If this condition is found when the 




A circular tank is one of the best types of watering troughs 



96 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



r: 

A 






jfp 



pi 

)1 d 



T-4^ ^ *V:*«f -^ E 



■-r-*4*t»* 



Exterior hori3onta! 
reinforcing s /g"p rods. 

Interior hori30nta! 
reinforcing 'l?$ rods 

AU vertical reinforcing 
/fc"S* rods 24"o.c. 



I2±6" 



Mesh reinforcement 
-351b. per s^.fr. 

.Slope _ Csl 



a 






*3 



1 



_^ 




2" 



-Mil- 




PL An OF MAHHOLE COVER 



Laps for horizontal reinforcing fo he 
50 diameters and should not occur at corners. 



f 




i 



411 






-it\ 



L 



-rft-i-H-f-l-t- 

^'*T?ods,S"o.<;. 



tt 



H- 

-r- 

+ 



P4- 



\4i£" 



4-2 



-^ 



Footing line. 




^H" 



5ectiom A -A 



Reinforced concrete tank for holding liquids. Can be constructed either above or underground 



TANK— Capacity = 11,700 Gallons. 1:2:4 Mix 



Footing = 1.67 X .67 


X 61 = 68.0 cu. 


ft. 


Side walls = 11 X 1 


X 60 = 660.0 cu. 


ft. 


Bottom = .5 X 12.5 


X 12.5 = 78.0 cu. 


ft. 


Top = .42 X 12.5 


X 12.5 = 65.5 cu. 


ft. 



871.5 cu. ft. or 
32.3 cu. yds. of concrete 

Material Required 

Lehigh cement = 48 bbls. Sand = 15 cu. yds. 

Pebbles = 30 cu. yds. 

forms are removed, patching should be done 
with a cement mortar consisting of 1 part 
cement and 2 parts sand. 

Provision must be made for water inlet and 
outlet at the time forms are set. An outlet is 
as necessary as an inlet, because tanks must 
be cleaned occasionally, and the easiest way 
to flush them is through an outlet provided 
for that purpose. By using a double valve 
connection the inlet and outlet can be com- 
bined into one fitting, which may be built into 
the floor when the first concrete is placed. 

Small troughs or trays are convenient in 
feeding poultry and hogs. These can be cast 





Reinforcement 


Exterior 

Interior 

Vertical 

Roof 

Bottom 

Manhole cover 


= 1,260' H" round rods = 1,310 lbs. 

= 840' H" " " ) 

= 360'^" " " [ = 1,198 lbs. 

= 588' y 2 " " "J 

= 55 lbs. of mesh reinf. 

= 24' of l /i" round rods = 4 lbs. 




2,512 lbs. of 
bars 
55 lbs. of mesh 



upside down in very simple forms by first 
setting up a core and around this building a 
frame so that the distance between frame and 
core surface will be equal to the required thick- 
ness of trough walls. 

In the table of arbitrary mixtures given on 
page 157 the range of aggregate size for certain 
classes of tanks and bins will be found. 

In the pasture and barnyard cattle will soon 
work a mud hole in the vicinity of the watering 
trough unless a paved area is provided around 
the tank. The details of floor pavement and 
walk construction which apply in this case 
are to be found on pages 64 to 68. 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



97 




Concrete Garages 



A GARAGE should be made large enough 
to provide plenty of room so that there 
will be ample space to work around the car. 

4 i " 

Rods 5z c.to c. alternate rods turned to top 

--- x of slab 2 1 0" from wall, re mainingrods turned 

'i?l TU \ up into parapei- \ 

^nsJU L- 



JL 



^2 9 Rods 7 c. to c. alternate 

/±d'JS3i rods turned to top of slab 

2 J "from wal/.remaimngrods turned up into 

parapet 
i_ n - 

■ 4-0^ 







There should be also room for a work bench 
and lockers for certain accessories. If any 
considerable quantity of gasoline is to be kept 



s 



zf 



=L 



A 




Design for monolithic 
concrete garage, with 
details of roof con- 
struction 



GARAGE— 1 



Walls 
Plaster 
Floor 
Roof 



Walls: 
Roof: 



= 744 cu. ft. 
= 75 cu. ft. 
= 134 cu. ft. 
= 195 cu. ft. 
1,148 cu. ft. or 43 cu 
yds. 

Reinforcement 

y s " round rods = 820 lin. ft. or 312 lbs. 
K" round rods = 1,998 lin. ft. or 1,335 lbs 



2 : 4 Mix 
Material Required 

Lehigh cement = 65 bbls. 



Sand 
Pebbles 



20 cu. yds. 
= 39 cu. yds. 



1,647 lbs. of steel 



98 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



T ^r 



■U — 



2 ±4." 



1 B B 0" 



1 



m 



FROMT ELEVATION 



24-4" 



h q b r 



□ 




B B B B 
8 Light 



cr 



-Poor V-8\6'-6" 



Side. Elevatiom 



T 



w- 




FLOOK FLAtt 






P i^i_ , , 

^;C^ TV rT ^r .. r r TT e ... T7 5 



PepressJ;"- 



^ 



5p 
«1 



Z7S777S l//=l/l--UTT 



•T 

i 

07,. 



t*=zv% 







J" 



31 



1 « T^ 






Jar joint. 

5"Tloor 



7 ' 



?:aj;-^aV^:^dv^6-^(i: 



^^1 



= /ii/i7i'^n=f ^77r^n 



$ £ 8 u Cinder fill 



-A 14" I— 



p/ Typical W/ulSectiom 



Design for reinforced monolithic concrete garage. Note the manner in which reinforce- 
ment should be placed at corners of structure and around openings of windows and door- 
ways. Form details are shown for a section through the wall near its top where provision 
must be made for casting the cornice and proper placement of reinforcement in cornice 
and roof. In the details showing corner reinforcement, although actual lapping of 
horizontal rods is at the corner, the ends of these rods extend around the corner and into 
the two sides far enough to insure full effectiveness of such reinforcement 



Gutter 
2 "deep 




^OOT FLAtl 



4' 'Down? pout 




View of Cormei? 5How\na TfunvoKCEWEm 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



99 



2 Visqonal rods 
'3 feet \onq 



^ & " .1. | l2 " 1 j ^Top ofFihfghgj roof 

is- - ~~ ""• 



4" Block cut 
to form 





2 "i?ods \0"o.c. 
Alternate -rods 
bent down into wa 

2-'T?ods 5"o.6. 
Alternate rods 
bent down i'ntovVfl/1 




Leave 2 "between 
steel and edqe of 
opening 



Typical 5ectiom Thru Wall Form 

GARAGE 
1:2 : 4 Mix 

Walls and footing 598.40 cu. ft. 
Openings deducted 68.40 " " 



Roof and floor 
Total 



530.00 
404.00 



934.00 cu. ft. = 34.59 cu. yds. 



Material Required 

Lehigh cement = 50 bbls. 
Sand = 15 cu. yds. 

Pebbles = 28 cu. yds. 

Reinforcing 

3100 lin. ft. of y 2 " rods 
Tie wire 



on the place this should be stored in an under- 
ground tank of steel cased in six inches of 
concrete. Arrangements for filling the tank 
should be entirely outside of the garage. A 
pump with suitable connections to draw gaso- 
line from the tank may be inside the garage. 
A sketch on page 96, under "Troughs, Tanks, 
and Bins," suggests an ideal treatment for an 
enclosure tank for storage of inflammables. 

Like other buildings of its kind, the garage 
should have a concrete floor which should be 
sloped to a drain, preferably trapped at the 



ARRAMSEMEriT f?ElHF0RCIfi<5 DOOR 
AMP WlMDOW OPEttiriGS 




5ipe Elevation of Cornice form Showing 
5ectionThru & racket form 





4" , 16" 








M 






.1 

-la! 

1 


1-nvlt 
1 Kjj 

Wood block/ 
4-tVi.ck^ 


1 


; 


—/zo" 




-oi 


<-4V 







Detail of Bracket Form 

center so that wash-water will be led away to a 
sewer or some other outlet. 

The information and tables under " Roofs, " 
on pages 106 and 107, will help in the construc- 
tion of the roof. Concrete asbestos roofing tile 
is becoming more and more popular because it 
is fire resistant, serviceable, and permanent. 

Several designs and photographic illustra- 
tions of concrete garages on pages 6 and 7 show 
that such structures can be satisfactorily and 
attractively built of either monolithic concrete 
or concrete block. 



100 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




A concrete wading pool is a pleasure spot for children 

Swimming and Wading Pools 



OWIMMING and wading pools of concrete 
^ belong in the same class of structures as 
concrete tanks. Itis necessary thataswimming 
pool be designed with particular reference to the 
water pressure the concrete must resist when 



the pool is full and the earth pressure to be 
encountered when the pool is empty. 

Many communities have found that a trif- 
ling service charge is justified for the use of the 
public pool. 




' /2-in Garfe ya/ve 
Union 



Of Curb- 



reinforce m e/?f 

Design for small concrete swimming pool 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



101 







i^i^'^iJ^S;--: .ijtfefiErl 




Monolithic storage cellar with ventilators 



Fruit and Vegetable Storage Cellars 



MODERN root, fruit, or vegetable storage 
cellars are best built of concrete because, 
in a properly designed concrete structure,venti- 
lation and regulation of moisture and temper- 
ature can be accomplished with less difficulty. 
For best results storage structures of this kind 
should be at least partly under ground in order 



to protect against extreme outside tempera- 
ture changes. A hillside location is most de- 
sirable because less earth need be handled in 
excavating. 

Not every farm has the same needs with re- 
spect to storage requirements, and it is for this 
reason that no one design is likely to meet all 




Concrete cyclone cellars are necessary adjuncts to schools and public buildings in some parts of the country 



102 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



■61-6" 




— J24"W -4i<eV- -JuV 

SECTion B-B 



-H 24" K 

FROOT ELEVATrOM 



This design for storage cellar for fruit and vegetables consists of a number of bays or units 
throughout its length. Size can be varied at will by omitting some of the units or increasing 
length and capacity by adding others. A side-hill location is to be preferred, where possible, for a 
structure of this kind. It reduces the volume of excavation required, while at the same time 
making it easier partly or wholly to cover the structure with earth, thus assisting in keeping 
the indoor temperature more nearly constant 



individual needs. Typical storage structures for 
fruit or vegetables are shown. Capacity may 
be expanded for the design shown above by 
the adding of unit sections, provided width 
is not varied. 

An important detail of storage cellar con- 
struction for fruits or vegetables is suitable 



ventilation, to maintain proper atmospheric 
control to keep fruit in prime condition, and to 
prevent excessive condensation of moisture on 
structure walls due to the influence of sudden 
changes in exterior temperature. 

Storage cellars may be built either monolithic 
or of concrete block. Sometimes the latter 




A small monolithic covered storage cellar with concrete entranceway and peaked roof 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



103 



type of construction is particularly advan- 
tageous because of the insulation introduced 
in the wall through the cells in the block. If 
similar insulation is desired in a monolithic 
concrete cellar, it may be secured by laying up 
a wall of hollow block or hollow tile on the in- 
side as sort of a veneer. During cool evenings 
manhole and cold-air intake covers should be 
manipulated so as to permit cold air to pass 



down into the cellar and circulate throughout 
it. In extremely cold weather these openings 
may have to be closed, and in more extreme 
cases a moderate amount of heat may have 
to be maintained in the cellar in order to keep 
the temperature from getting below freezing 
during the protracted cold spells. 

Similar structures are also used in some 
parts of the country for cyclone cellars. 



r£arf/?fiff. 



- - 3a//a" 'outer mr/y to 
±7/ t/7/5 point. /Femofg 
forms j f/// ly/tt? 
c/nc/ers, anc/Mer? 
Cost roc/' s/ai> 




i"rouncrrods 



K§fa 






e 



N id cET 

Section A-A 



spaced 8 * or> centers 
£' rot/net rep's space at 
*4-k * a/7 ces7tSKS~ 



form insu/an'on 



REINFORCEMENT FOR. 

Bottom Roof Slab . L 

Egza 



Small fruit and vegetable storage cellar with flat roof fully detailed 
to permit home construction. The double roof slab provides added 
insulation from changing temperatures. Can be adapted as a 
small ice house by extending the double wall insulated construction 
down to the footings and building the house at ground level so 
that ice will not have to be carried up the steps. A drain should 
be placed at the center of the floor inside to take care of meltage 
water. Complete design for roof reinforcement is shown 




J "rounotrvrfs 

8* to canters. 

Section E-E. 



STORAGE CELLAR 






1 :2 : 


4 Mix 






Cellar 


Entranceway 




Footings = 150 cu. ft. 


Footing 


= 4 cu. 


ft 


Inside walls = 270 cu. ft. 


Walls 


= 6 cu. 


tt 


Outside walls = 89 cu. ft. 


Walls 


= 18 cu. 


ft 


Parapet walls = 8 cu. ft. 


Walls 


= 14 cu. 


It 


Floor = 76 cu. ft. 


Floor 


= 10 cu. 


It 


Inside roof = 109 cu. ft. 


Steps 


= 6 cu. 


tt 


Outside roof = 77 cu. ft. 


Steps 


= 18 cu. 


tt 



Total 855 cu. ft. 

= 31.67 cu. yds. 



Material Required 

Lehigh cement = 46 bbls. 

Sand = 14 cu. yds. 

Pebbles = 28 cu. yds. 

Cinder fill = 62 cu. ft. 



Reinforcement 

Inside walls, }-i" rods 12" on centers vertical and 
horizontal. Double rods around door. Diagonal rods, 
two 6" long at corners of doors. Reinforcement as illus- 
trated for milk house on page 110. 



ROOF 

40 
20 



round rods 12' 2" long = 486' 8" 
round rods 14' 8" long = 293' 4" 



780 lin. ft. 



WALLS 

Vertical Y%" round rods = 375' 

Horizontal Y%" round rods = 420' 

Rods around door H" round rods = 40' 



835 lin. ft. 
of 2^" rods 



104 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




Farm Work Houses 



SOME years ago several of the manufacturers of 
agricultural implements made a survey to show 
the depreciation of farm implements left exposed to 
the weather. The result of this survey disclosed 
a tremendous loss, which proved that proper care of 
farm implements, including their protection from 
the elements, was warranted. A farm workshop is 
also a paying proposition, because simple repairs to 
implements on the farm often save long and costly 
trips to town. 






-y-o 



■12 |» 



H 

D 



FROMT LLEVATlOtt 



18-6' 




Design for a small workshop and storage shed 



Machine Shed 



12x12" Columns 



I2±0 



Hi 



4? 



|I2|" 8'-&" 



Concrete runwjy 



3 5-i-O" 




CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



105 





D— *J 




UUUU ! 



m 



n 



oa 



DC 



-4-*i 




D.andL.L. = /30* 
sj- i "*Bars 3"oc. 

i z"*&ars 8"oc~* 



V&3Z&3. m 



■ ":*;'■ 



I" '*'■ • :'■■'/ 



. \ -Ci'nefers ■. ' ■ ■ '.'.''■■'.■'-'..■.'' . 



WP[v 




— 7-ymM 



Design for a workshop or a farm office, concrete block or monolithic construction 



WORK HOUSE— MONOLITHIC 
1:2:4 Mix 



Walls = 7 X .75 X 56 

Footings = 6 X .67 X 56 

Deducting window and 
door openings 



= 294 cu. ft. 
= 225 cu. ft. 

519 cu. ft. 
= 119 cu. ft. 



Roof 
Floor 



400 cu. ft. 
= 16.5 X 18.5 X .33 = 100 cu. ft. 
= 14 X 12 X .42 = 71 cu. ft. 

571 cu. ft. or 21 cu. 
yds. of concrete 



WORK HOUSE— CONCRETE BLOCK 
1:2:4 Mix 

FOUNDATION 

3 X .75 X 56 = 126 cu. ft. 
15 courses of block @ 40 = 600 concrete block 

LINTELS 

2 lintels @ 6' 8" X 8" X 8" = 6.0 cu. ft 



Material Required Steel Required 



Lehigh cement 

Sand 

Pebbles 



= 32 bbls. 
= 10 cu. yds. 
= 20 cu. yds. 



431 pounds 
603 pounds 
1,034 pounds of steel 



ROOF 
FLOOR 



5' 4" X 8" X 8" = 5.0 cu. ft. 
4' 0" X 8" X 8" = 5.5 cu. ft. 

16.5 cu. ft. 
96 cu. ft. of concrete 
71 cu. ft. of concrete 



Total amount of mon. concrete = 314 cu. ft. or 11.6 

cu. yds. 



Reinforcement 

WALL REINFORCEMENT 

Vertical rods M" round == 507 ft 



Horizontal 
For openings' 



= 168 ft. 

y 2 " " = 68 ft. 

743 ft. of J/£"rods or 
491 pounds 



ROOF REINFORCEMENT 

W round rods = 900 feet or 603 pounds 



Material Required 

Lehigh cement = 18 bbls. 
Sand = 5 cu. yds. 

Pebbles = 10 cu. yds. 

Steel for lintels 

70 feet of Yi' round rods = 47 lbs. 

Steel for roof 

900 feet of Yi' round rods = 603 lbs. 



106 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




Machine 5hep 



&«m s upporhnq co of ^ C^™!?**'! 



72-^8" 

Plan 



12*8" 



12*4 



-i -< 



-S" 




Perspective 



Since practically every farm has automo- 
biles or tractors, this shed and workshop 
can be used as a protection against the 
weather 







Roof slab with reinforcement embedded in lower side 



Concrete Roofs 



UNLESS a building in which concrete is used for foundation and 
walls is finished with a concrete roof, a great measure of the fire 
protection of concrete will be lost. For many small buildings, such as 
garages, workshops, implement sheds, hog houses, and similar struc- 
tures, flat concrete roofs can be used. Design of concrete roofs can be 
standardized somewhat for small buildings where span is narrow. Con- 
venient reference tables follow, showing the quantity of reinforcing 
necessary for varying span and slab thicknesses. 



THICKNESS OF ROOF SLABS IN INCHES 





Length of Roof in Feet Between Center Lines of Walls 


Lines of Walls 


4 Feet 


6 Feet 


8 Feet 


10 Feet 


12 Feet 


14 Feet 


16 Feet 


4 feet 


2 in. 


2 in. 
2}4 in. 


iy 2 in. 
iy 2 in. 
3 in. 


iy in. 

iy in. 
2>y in. 
3*4 in. 


iy in. 

3 in. 
3y in. 

4 in. 
4 in. 


iy in. 
3 in. 
Zy\n. 
Ay in. 
4M in. 
5 in. 


iy in. 


6 feet 


3 in. 


8 feet 


4 in. 


10 feet 


±y in. 


12 feet 


5 in. 


14 feet . 


sy\n. 


16 feet 


6 in. 







Load = weight of roof + 50 pounds per square foot. 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



107 



CEMENT, SAND, AND STONE OR PEBBLES 

Required for Concrete Slab Roofs. Proportions for concrete 1:2:3. Each cubic yard of 1:2:3 concrete requires 
about 1.74 barrels of Lehigh cement, .52 cubic yard of sand, and .77 cubic yard of stone. 
1 sack of cement considered as 1 cubic foot 



Width of Slab in Feet Between Eaves 



Length of Roof 


















in Feet 




4 Ft. 


6 Ft. 


8 Ft. 


10 Ft. 


12 Ft. 


14 Ft. 


16 Ft. 


Between Eaves 


4-i 

a 
















4 


0.7 














6 


"o ^ 


1.0 


2.0 














8 


1.7 


2.6 


4.2 












10 


^^ 


2.2 


3.3 


6.1 


7.6 










12 


O j3 

,S5 m 


2.6 


4.7 


7.3 


10.4 


12.5 








14 


en- 


3.0 


5.5 


8.5 


13.7 


16.4 


21.2 






16 




3.5 


6.2 


10.1 


14.4 


20.8 


26.7 


33 


3 


4 


— 


1.4 
















6 




2.1 


3.9 














8 




3.4 


5.2 


8.3 












10 


fcL, C 


4.3 


6.5 


12.1 


15.2 










12 


.y$ 


5.2 


9.4 


14.6 


20.8 


25.0 








14 


X> 
3 


6.1 


10.9 


17.0 


27.3 


32.8 


42.5 






16 


u 


6.9 


12.5 


20.2 


28.8 


41.6 


53.4 


66 


6 


4 




2.1 
















6 


o 


3.1 


5.9 














8 


S <u 


5.1 


7.8 


12.5 












10 


* o 


6.5 


9.8 


18.2 


22.7 










12 


.y& 


7.8 


14.0 


21.8 


31.2 


37.4 








14 


XI 


9.1 


16.4 


25.5 


41.0 


49.1 


63.7 






16 


u 


10.4 


18.7 


30.3 


43.2 


62.4 


80.1 


99 


8 



Example. — How much material will it require to 
construct a roof 10 feet by 12 feet? Page 106 shows 
that a roof 10 feet by 12 feet requires a 4-inch concrete 
slab. The table above shows that for a 1:2:3 mix 
this roof will require 10.4 sacks of Lehigh cement, 20.8 
cubic feet of sand, and 31.2 cubic feet of stone. 

The table below shows that j^s-inch round rods 
should be used for reinforcement. The rods running 



parallel to the 10-foot side of the building or across the 
span should be 1% inches center to center. The long 
reinforcement parallel to the 12-inch side should be 
spaced 16 inches center to center. 

Where a roof is supported on girders, the close spacing 
reters to the rods extending across the girders, as that 
will be the short span of the roof slab, and the wide 
spacing refers to the rods parallel with the girders. 



SPACING OF REINFORCING RODS IN INCHES 



Width in Feet Between Center 
Lines of Walls 









Length of Roof in Feet Between Center Lines 


of Walls 




Size 


4 Ft. 


6 Ft. 


8 Ft. 


10 Ft. 


12 Ft. 


14 Ft. 


16 Ft. 


Steel 


12 

12 


in. 
in. 




9)4 in. 
24 in. 

6 in. 
6 in. 


8 in. 
36 in. 

4^4 in. 
12 in. 


8 in. 
36 in. 

4 in. 
36 in. 


8 in. 
36 in. 

4 in. 
36 in. 


8 in. 
36 in. 

4 in. 
36 in. 


8 in. 
36 in. 

4 in. 
36 in. 


Round 
Rods 






11 in. 
11 in. 


9)4 in. 
22 in. 


9 in. 
36 in. 


7K in. 
36 in. 


1)4 m. 
36 in. 














8?4 in. 
8H in. 


IX in. 
16 in. 


7 in. 
27 in. 


6)4 in. 
36 in. 


o 
Pi 


Not 


E.— 


-Ui 


iper figures a 


re for cross re 


inforcement; 


6)4 in. 
6)4 in. 

lower figures 


5?4 in. 
12 in. 

for long rein 
5)4 in. 
5)4 in. 


5)4 in. 
16 in. 

forcement. 
A)4 in. 
8}4 in. 

4 in. 
4 in. 


a 

3 
O 
Pi 

d 
X 



4 feet 

6 feet 

8 feet 

10 feet 

12 feet 

14 feet | 

16 feet 



Load = weight of roof + 50 pounds per square foot 



108 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




The separators should be placed convenient to the cooling tanks 

Dairy and Ice Houses 



THE size of a dairy house is largely depen- 
dent upon the size of the herd, whether 
whole milk or only cream is to be cared for, 
and whether or not necessary refrigeration can 
be applied while the milk is being held pre- 
paratory to shipping. Size of the milk house 
should always be limited to those dimensions 
which will provide for handling milk only. 
Otherwise surplus space will soon become 
storage room for many undesirable articles 
that have no place in a building where milk 
is handled. Such twofold use contributes to 
insanitary conditions and defeats the pur- 
pose for which concrete was primarily used. 
More than one creamery company compels its 
patrons to build certain types of concrete milk 
houses if they expect the creamery to buy 
their product. 

The dairy house should be easy of access 
from the farm house, the barn, and the ice 
house. Incidentally, no farm where ice can be 
harvested easily should be without this last 
structure. 

The site for the milk house should be one 
insuring good soil drainage, and some natural 
shade is an advantage in summer, although the 
sterilizing effect of sunlight should not be over- 
looked. 

Good circulation of air is necessary, and 
should not be left entirely to chance or occa- 
sional opening of doors and windows. A metal 



ventilator built in the roof, with suitable inlets, 
will provide for thorough circulation. 

During the warm months the windows 
will usually be left open, so they should be 
screened with non-rusting screen cloth to keep 
out flies and other insects. An almost indispen- 
sable adj unct to the milk house is a cooling tank, 
which is built essentially the same as a stock 
watering trough. Inlet and overflow fittings 
should be provided, with proper consideration 
for the depth of water to be maintained in the 
tank so that cans will be kept submerged well up 
around their necks. Grooves cast in the bottom 
of the tank while its floor is being concreted 
will provide for adequate circulation of water 
under the cans. This groove can be formed by 
pressing several triangular strips of wood into 
the concrete before it has hardened and after- 
ward removing them. 

Frequently an ice house and milk room are 
combined. With a home supply of ice avail- 
able, the contents of the tank can be kept cool 
by keeping chunks of ice in it. Otherwise 
spring water may be circulated through the 
tank. 

Often a spring is enclosed with a concrete 
building which becomes the milk house after the 
spring has been properly walled with concrete. 

It has been estimated that at least 30 per 
cent of such dairy products as milk and 
cream is wasted on the farm, due to lack of or 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



109 



A ^ods 12'o.c. 



Building waJ, 




■I' '.' 7 -' . ': : : )j "; : ; I'P ."- ."-:?." : ■ 1 1' P-:- : ■ ?■ .vipy . Y<v-.'-c.: J. ; 

• ' ' ■ ■■-■■- — •-f// = / / ;^ 

Part Longitudinal Section 



' ?■ " (7 V P' p (7 P P .0- P ■"'. P P 

V C V t> j'P, |7 p . g ' P. f . D: p. .. p p 




____ r 



7> 



L-— -J 



__l L__I— _4__^ 



-^ 



4-" Channel protection 
Part Plan 

MILK COOLING VAT 

Assume 6' 0" long. 1:2:3 Mix 

Walls = 6.6 cu. ft. 

End walls = 2.8 cu. ft. 
Bottom = 9.5 cu. ft. 

18.9 cu. ft. or .70 cu. yd. 



•?•■ 
:?-'-.'■ 
-;:V 

'•p.'--: 
-.-■jo- 

"P./; 

-:v- 



v'.-P 

p.'-. 



rA 1 'Channel 

"bolt every 24" 





m 


•p...'j. 




: p.'A 


t*:P 


py'v\ 


r *■ 


•v. v \ 


■P. 6 


'■i>\-: p/.p] P' 



3 /gx 8" Anchor 



Depressions are formed in this cooling 

vat to provide free circulation of water 

around the cans. Keep the water cool 

with either ice or flowing spring water 



r- 4" -J 

Enlarged Detail at "A" 

Material Required 

Lehigh cement = 1.2 bbls. 
Sand = .36 cu. yd. 

Pebbles = .54 cu. yd. 

Reinforcement 

143 lln. feet of l /i" round rods or 24.5 lbs. 




The depth of this cooling vat insures cans being well submerged 



110 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



Alternate rods 

ben tupo U^ H g" h 

T ^ TPlI =X 

Roof re'inforce J with % 
rods & "apart each way or 
with wire mesh weiqhinq 
1.21b. per s cj.ft, 

Vlace reinforcing above 
toitom of roof 



;ii 



s-id" 






^o 



^#g 



■ To firm footinoj and 
'fcelow frost 





9±0" 



Inlet L-~Tar paper 

joint 
£oo\\r\0) Tank 
Ou+let- 



$lope floor io O 
drains 



\\ ^ 2 4- - L iqht 1 2 "x I < w {/ 
saeh ViinqeS. 
on top. 



F'J-^^ri 




Wall reinforced with 3 /&" round rods as 
shown. Rods doubled around openings ^and 
continous around corners. JPlaqonal rods 
Z-Q>" lon^ at corners of openings. 



MILK HOUSE 
1:2:4 Mix 

Walls = 209.0 cu. ft. 

Floors = 33.6 cu. ft. 

Footings = 27.0 cu. ft. 

Roof = 54.0 cu. ft. 



323.6 cu. ft. or 12 cu. yds. 

Material Required 

Lehigh cement = 18.12 bbls. 
Sand = 5.4 cu. yds. 

Pebbles = 10.8 cu. yds. 

Reinforcement 

Roof ( 3 £" round rods) 398 ft. or 144 lbs. of mesh 
Walls {%" round rods) 450 ft. 

848 lin. ft. or 322 lbs. 



This design for a small milk house with cooling tank is of monolithic construc- 
tion, showing method of reinforcing the walls 



insufficient cooling facilities. The products 
spoil before they can be marketed. These fig- 
ures are based on careful studies of the United 
States Department of Agriculture and enable 
any one to prove to himself that the cost of a 
milk house is soon returned through preven- 
tion of waste. 

Concrete Ice Houses 

From the nature of the stored contents ice 
houses are subjected to varying degrees of 
dampness. Rot-proof qualities of concrete 
provide construction that is not affected by 
these conditions. Wooden ice houses after two 
or three years require such continual repair 



that within five years the expenditures to keep 
them in usable condition will amount practi- 
cally to rebuilding. All of this is done away 
with through permanent concrete construction. 
Practical dimensions for a small ice house are 10 
by 10 by 10 feet. This provides a gross ca- 
pacity of 1,000 cubic feet. Ice weighs approxi- 
mately 57 pounds per cubic foot, and allowing 
for packing material, storage capacity in an 
ice house of the dimensions given would be at 
the rate of 40 pounds per cubic foot, or, in other 
words, 20 tons. These figures will enable any 
one to estimate for greater capacity if required. 
Concrete block are particularly suited to con- 
crete ice house construction because of the air 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



111 



Concrete slab /6"Yeni\\aior. 




Pi. AM 



Combination milk house and ice house. 

The advantages of a combined structure 

have been referred to on page 108 



Section Yardage Mixture 


Bbls. of 
Lehigh 
cement 


Cu. yds. 
sand 


Cu. yds. 
1 in. stone 


Footings = 185 cu. ft. = 6.85 cu. yds. of concrete, 1:3:6 mix, requiring 

Foundations ] 

Walls \ = 1668 cu. ft. = 61.78 cu. yds. of concrete, 1 : 2 yi. : 4 mix, requiring 

Floors J 

Columns 

Roofs \ = 351 cu. ft. = 13.00 cu. yds. of concrete, 1:2:3 mix, requiring 

Tanks J 


6.92 
83.40 

22.10 


3.15 

32.13 
6.76 


6.30 
50.66 

10.01 


Approximate total required 


113 


42 


67 



spaces introduced in the walls which provide 
sufficient insulation to reduce meltage of ice to 
a minimum, regardless of outside temperature 
conditions. The concrete floor in an ice house 
should have a drain to carry away meltage, 
but this drain should be trapped so that it 
will be sealed against possible entrance of 
warm air. When monolithic concrete is used 
for an ice house, sometimes double wall con- 
struction is used to provide insulation in the 



5}4 cu. yds. cinder fill 

wall, or a veneer of hollow tile is laid on the 
inside for the same purpose. The concrete 
roof is insulated by laying two separate slabs 
separated from each other by a layer of clean 
cinders. Ice house walls, both monolithic and 
block, must be reinforced in a manner similar 
to the reinforcing of silos to provide against 
bursting due to pressure of contents which 
may shift so as to throw considerable weight 
against the walls. 



112 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




A concrete cistern pro- 

vides a dependable 

source of soft water 



Cisterns 



A CISTERN is nothing more nor less than 
-^ *- a tank, and the fundamental require- 
ments of tank construction have been described 
on pages 93 to 96. Cisterns have been built 
of brick and stone masonry, but this class 
of construction cannot be depended upon for 
watertightness, even when plastered. Con- 
crete is, therefore, the ideal cistern construction 
material. As in other forms of tanks, it is well 
to arrange, if possible, to carry on concreting 
continuously, so that construc- 
tion seams will be avoided. 

A filter is desirable and is gen- 
erally made a part of the cistern. 
The filter compartment is usually 



built so that it will contain a layer of gran- 
ulated charcoal, on top of which a layer of 
clean, well-graded sand and gravel is placed. 
A screen of ^ _m ch copper wire is placed over 
the pipe opening into the cistern to prevent 
leaves and other refuse from clogging up the 
filter-bed. Every cistern is the subject of spe- 
cial design. The accompanying sketches of cis- 
terns which have been built are complete in 
every detail of construction. 



INLET 



Section of a typical 
underground concrete 
cistern. Two types of 
filters are shown 




CROSS SECTION OF CONCRETE WATER FILTER. 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 113 




G'Tilei 



fc 

4; r : 



= '.-l:ST 



1 L - 
! r"" 

1 n O 



4. nods £ ac. ; (,3p 
I2"at cenier of side ■ 

Vertical rods turned 
2-10" into roof. slab 



1^ 

1 <u 
1 d. 



ClSTBRtf 
!•£- Capacity lObbl. 

fa 



7-k?" 



ik 



'^?ods S"o.c. 



r^:rBii^^/Vi , .^t-. 6 '.-'.--''.'» , - : r'i: , ». : ^v-V,ft-.'»^-» : S 






/-/=//> '^//;)=///-//; ^ //; = >/y^=' /y z * 






&■■.■.■& ■•■•; fr- ■•■• <k 



^ECTIOiS 



V9 1 «s 



•ft 
:fl-\ 






.&-&.'■ '// 

»r77Z= 






3^4-" 



xtztlrJrfc. 

1' ' I 1 Li 
jT-T-r+Tf 

I 1 l^"°- c - ! 

xr-:t J 



= . pLAn 

■ SQJ a ] 

Isa — 1' '^ v ■■ ■• • ^i^ 
T 5ec-tion ^ 

Pltail. op£over. 




Coffer Sche 



dd_dJ|di 

DDDDiD 



ODD DTD 

DDDDiD, 



2±-5" 



"Fl.LTE.R5.LAfo 



note 



/4?1 reinforcing 



to be t^ rods 



This design for a concrete cistern 
provides for 65 bbl. capacity. Rein- 
forcement details are complete. A 
filter in a cistern is necessary 





CISTERN 




1:2:4 Mix 


Bottom 


24.50 cu. ft. 


Top 


24.50 cu. ft. 


Cover 


3.89 cu. ft. 


Footing 


12.00 cu. ft. 


Main walls 


112.00 cu. ft. 


Monitor walls 


; 4.75 cu. ft. 


Monitor wall 


; 15.00 cu. ft. 



Material Required 

Lehigh cement = 11 bbls. 
Sand = 3 cu. yds. 

Pebbles = 6 cu. yds. 

Reinforcement all I / 4" Rods 

Top and bottom 60 rods 7' 6" long = 450' 0" 
Cover 5 rods 4' 3" long = 21' 3" 

Cover 8 rods 3' 0" long = 24' 0" 

Main walls 15 rods 34' 0" long = 510' 0" 

Main walls 60 rods 9' 0" long = 540' 0" 



1545 lin. ft. 



Total 196.64 cu. ft. = 7.283 cu. yds. 



Tie wire to be included. 



114 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




A concrete septic tank, showing siphon in place, ready to remove forms and cast 

the cover 



Septic Tanks 



nr^HE principle on which the septic tank 
A works is one of bacterial action. If ordinary 
household waste is confined in a practically air- 
tight and dark compartment, such as the first 
chamber of a septic tank provides, the solids 
commence to break up, due to the development 
and action of bacteria. These feed on the solids 
and semisolids in the wastes and convert them 
into gas and relatively harmless compounds. 
After certain transformation in the first com- 
partment, some of the contents are discharged 
into a second compartment, where further 
transformation takes place and the sewage is 
rendered even less harmful and less offensive. 
Finally the second compartment discharges 
into a tight tile line which should have laterals 
laid with open joints through which seepage 
of liquids into the soil can take place where 
final and complete destruction of harmful ele- 
ments is performed by the action of other bac- 
teria native to the soil. 

Practically all successful septic tanks em- 
body the essential features shown in a sketch 
on page 115. They may appear somewhat 
different, but fundamentally they are the 
same. Sewage from the house mains enters 
the first compartment, then overflows to the 
second, and finally is discharged from that 
compartment at regularly timed intervals by 



an automatic, mechanically controlled device 
installed in the second compartment, known 
as a siphon. These siphons can be set to 
discharge the contents of the second com- 
partment at predetermined intervals. This 
is necessary in order that time control be exer- 
cised with respect to holding the sewage un- 
disturbed for a given length of time to permit 
completion of a certain stage of bacterial 
action. 

Septic tanks are made in various shapes, 
and if they embody the underlying principles, 
shape is unimportant. One type is precast 
in units somewhat similar to lengths of large 
sewer or culvert pipe with fittings that permit 
assembling where they are to be used in series 
of two, three, or more tanks, the idea of the 
series being to provide for additional capacity. 
For the person intending to build a septic tank 
a rectangular shape is the best because of the 
ease with which concrete forms can be built. 
The depth of such a tank should be not less 
than four feet below the opening of the pipe 
which discharges wastes into the tank. The 
total depth of the fluids in the first tank should 
be not less than five feet. If practical, a 
greater depth is desirable. As mentioned, 
discharges from the second compartment, or 
siphon chamber, should be carried by a line 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



115 



J^ 



Tile Pisposal 
Septic Tamk. 



— /Over f to*/ 
pipe. 




^- 4-"S<?wi?r -t i \e. 

;ir Fall V'to &"p<?rf<3ot 

Depth Z to 4 feet 

Joints cemented 



HOUSE 




HoREOffTAL SE.CTIOrf 
5-12" 



'ft 



Han- 
hole. 



J ' i 



iij-4F=H 



Man- 
hole. 



-I- I j-f M U rf- 



P-LAtf 

A miniature home sewage disposal plant which, within natural limitations, disposes of household 
wastes in a manner to render them practically harmless. The principles of construction are 
as outlined under discussion of "Tanks." One of the sketches makesclear the manner of connect- 
ing the tank to the house and in turn to the tile lines leading to the disposal field 

SEPTIC TANK— 1 : 2 : 4 Mix 



Solid base under siphon 46.66 cu. ft. 
Less corner not filled 15.83 cu. ft. 



Outside wall 

Outside wall 

Inside wall 

Bottom 

Top 

Curbs around manhole 

Two covers 



30.83 cu. ft. 
48.75 cu. ft. 
16.50 cu. ft. 

4.00 cu. ft. 

4.00 cu. ft. 
10.79 cu. ft. 

1.67 cu. ft. 

2.95 cu. ft. 



Material Required 

Lehigh cement = 7 bbls. 
Sand = 2 cu. yds. 

Pebbles = 4 cu. yds. 



Reinforcement 

For top: 15 }& in. rods, 3 ft. 6 in. long 
4 H in- rods, 4 ft. long 



119.49 cu. ft. = 4.426 cu. yds. 



of tile made of dense, non-porous drain tile 
laid with cemented joints up to the point 
where final disposition is to be made of the 
wastes. This area is generally called the dis- 
posal field. The lateral lines receiving dis- 
charges from the main tile line should be laid 



with open joints. Sometimes disposal is ac- 
complished by what is known as surface irri- 
gation. This means allowing the liquids dis- 
charged from the siphon department to flow 
over the land, where combined action of sun 
and soil bacteria renders them harmless. 



116 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AN 



COUNTRY 





1 


■ ; 


























1 










_ O 


i . "~ 








*." 










^ ^ISoH BP^ 





















Cover for septic tank, showing removable cover 



Frequent light cultivation of this area with- 
out cropping keeps it in better condition to 
receive and dispose of tank discharges. Once 
put into operation, the septic tank is self- 
operating, because of the automatic siphon. 

Experience seems to prove the desirability 
of building a septic tank of capacity sufficient 
to contain twenty-four hours' flow of sewage 
from the household which it serves. Re- 
quired capacity can be approximately deter- 
mined by estimating that the discharges into 
the tank will range between 30 and 50 gallons 
per person per day. The length of the tank 
should be about twice its width, so that uniform 
velocity of flow through it may be obtained. 

It is necessary that the method provided 
for the entrance of household wastes into the 
tank be such as to break up the inrush or 
rapid flow action and prevent the disturbance 
of the scum which forms in this compartment. 
Baffle boards or special Y-pipe fittings are 



used, the latter method consisting of having 
one end of the Y submerged below the constant 
level of fluids in this compartment. The scum 
must not be broken, disturbed unnecessarily, 
nor allowed to leave the first compartment, as 
it is the home of the bacteria which do the 
work of sewage reduction. The principles of 
constructing a concrete septic tank, so far as 
the concrete work goes, are the same as those 
applying to any form of tank, such as a cis- 
tern, etc. See pages 93 to 96. 

Sewage must enter from the house at one 
end of the tank and leave at the other end. 
A grease trap must be placed in the line from 
house to tank. The flow through the tank 
should be slow and as uniform as possible. 

As a rule, subsurface disposal is best for the 
single residence if soil conditions are suitable. 
This system usually requires less attention 
and the discharges from the tank are entirely 
out of sight at all times. 




Cross-section of septic tank with baffle boards in place. Inlet and outlet pipes are 

cast in position 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



117 




(£) Underwood and Underwood 



Portland cement stucco has many advantages 



Portland Cement Stucco 



PORTLAND cement stucco is a cement 
plaster used to finish the exterior walls of 
frame, brick, tile, or concrete structures, and 
to renovate outside surfaces of old buildings. 

The merits of stucco are its ease of appli- 
cation, the fire protection it affords, and the 
elimination of maintenance. 

Stucco is done without forms, and if guided 
by proper specifications, results are attractive 
and lasting. In the case of a frame structure 
the strength of the building and its durability 
are increased. 

Stucco should not be confused with the ordi- 
nary plastering done with lime sand mortar. 
In the modern acceptance, stucco means a 
mortar prepared of Portland cement and sand, 
in which a small quantity of hydrated lime 
may be present to increase the mixture's 
plasticity. The stucco building may consist of 
a timber or metal frame covered with cement 
plaster, preferably with metal lath used as the 
"ground." Stucco is also applied to masonry 
construction. 

For best results on frame buildings stucco 
should be applied to metal lath or woven mesh 
fabric which has been previously fastened to 
the building studs or sheathing. Wood lath 
nailed directly to wood studs or furring strips 
nailed over the sheathing or over the old siding 
in remodeling an old structure are also used. 
In all cases it is better to remove the siding 
before furring and lathing the surface to be 
stuccoed. 

The framing of studding should be done so 
that the structure will form a rigid support for 
lath and plaster; otherwise, if there should be 
settlement of the structure, the stucco will crack. 
Frame buildings, to be dry, should be covered 



with sheathing boards over which waterproof 
building paper has been laid before furring 
and lathing. In covering old frame buildings 
the furring strips may be nailed directly on the 
weatherboards when the surface is rigid and 
true. The best practice is to remove weather- 
boards and apply furring or lath to the studs 
or sheathing. Wood furring strips should be 
not less than yi inch thick and about one 
inch wide. 

Sometimes ^4-inch round rods are used with 
metal lath rods acting as furring strips to hold 
the metal lath from the sheathing to provide 
space necessary for the stucco plaster to key or 
clinch. The metal lath is wired to the rods, which 
are first attached to the sheathing by staples. 

Metal lath is made both with and without 
stiffening webs. These stiffeners are in the 
nature of ribs formed in the material at the 
time it is shaped in manufacturing. Metal 
furring should be used with metal lath because 
wood strips are bulky, interfering with the 
clinch or bond of the plaster and preventing a 
thorough coating of the lath at that point. 
Furring strips on studding should be placed 
not more than 16 inches apart, to give proper 
stiffness to the lath. Each furring strip, whether 
of wood or metal, should be securely attached 
to the studding, sheathing, or weatherboarding 
at intervals not greater than one foot. One 
kind of metal lath made from slotted metal 
is expended into diamond-shaped mesh of 
different sizes, and can be obtained in vari- 
ous weights or thicknesses. 

W 7 ire lath is made from wire of different 
sizes woven to form a network of fabric hav- 
ing meshes about y$ inch square. Such lath 
comes both japanned and galvanized. 



118 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



COsycrefe 
f/re sfop 

form 

(mefa/hth or wood) 



jj-j — wafer proof 
paper 





sfuCCO- 









far or ospooft : 
woterproof/og 



mefof/oth' 7 
60c f p foster' 

ft - sfud wit y/nfenorp/aster 



5TUCC0 ON METAL LATH 

BACK. PLASTERED WALL 
{Bracing and insulation not snotvn) 





5TUCC0 ON METAL LATH 

WITH WOOD SHEATHING 

wood furring strips g"*Z"- /2"ctrs -^ 




5TUCC0 ON WOOD LATH 

WITH WOOD SHEATHING 



Stucco, 




Back plaster coat 
Rod or 



Tar or asphalt 
waterproofing*- 



1 >M?'cr/mped furring.Y/, Interior plaster X//1 



5TUCC0 ON METAL LATH 

BACK PLASTERED WALL 
(Bracing and insulation not shown) 



Stucco 



i"x?"fuf ring sf rips t2"cfrs 

^fofer/or p foster o/?/77ef<?/ fof/t 

5TUCC0 ON CONCRETE BLOCKS 




OU OTHER MA50NPY 



STUCCO ON METAL LATH 

WITH WOOD SHEATHING 



Details of stucco construction 



The galvanized type is preferable if it has 
been galvanized after the fabric was woven, as 
the coating assists to tie or bond the wires of 
the fabric where they cross or intersect. Six- 
teen-inch spacing of furring accommodates 
36-inch wire lath, allowing it to lap two inches 
on the sides. 

Metal lath should be lapped at least one 
inch wherever joined, and should be fastened 
securely to the furring strips or studding so as 
to prevent sagging or bulging. 

Most of the unsatisfactory examples of 
stucco work are due to disregarding important 
fundamentals when wood lath are used as a 
ground. Only the best quality of wood lath 
should be used and they should be well wet 



down before applying the plaster. If this 
is not done, the lath will absorb moisture 
from the stucco, preventing the cement in 
the mixture from properly hardening. If the 
lath are too wet, they will shrink later and 
separate from the plaster in places, thus weak- 
ening the key. In either extreme cracking is 
likely to follow and the plaster may finally 
loosen and fall off. With metal lath all dan- 
ger of shrinkage is avoided, and the additional 
cost is not enough to justify the use of wood 
lath. When wood lath is used, it should be 
placed so that spaces between are about }{ 
inch wide. Secure nailing at each point of 
intersection with a stud or furring strip is 
necessary. Most important of all, wood lath 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



119 




Stucco can be applied to either a brick or a tile base 



should be covered with a strip of wire netting 
or mesh fabric at corners and recesses, to pre- 
vent cracks in the wall at these points. Simple 
and inexpensive as this precaution is, it is more 
often neglected than observed. 

Stucco is used to a considerable extent to 
renovate old brick structures and to give a 
more attractive surface finish to ordinary con- 
crete walls. There is no better ground for the 
application of stucco than rough cast concrete 
block. In making concrete block for stucco 
finish, no care is taken to produce an even sur- 
face texture. The intention is to allow the sur- 
face to present small aggregate pockets in order 
that the stucco may more firmly bond to it. 

In applying Portland cement stucco to walls 
of concrete or masonry, the surface to be 
stuccoed must be roughened enough to secure 
proper bond for the stucco and must be thor- 
oughly cleaned by brushing and washing in 
order to remove loose particles, dust, soot, 
or any other material that would reduce ad- 
hesion between stucco and the surface to be 
covered. In such masonry as brick, the mor- 
tar joints should be picked out to a depth of at 
least J/2 inch from the face of the wall, so as 
to increase the bond between the stucco and 
the wall surface. In the case of new brick 
walls the joints at the face of the wall are 
purposely left unfilled to provide this key. 
Chimneys should be furred and lathed before 
they are stuccoed, otherwise the changing 
conditions in their walls as regards heat inside 
and cold outside may cause the stucco to crack 
and fall off. All walls should be thoroughly 
drenched with water immediately before the 
stucco is applied. 

Stucco is usually applied in three coats, des- 
ignated as the first coat, intermediate coat, 
and the finish coat. When plastering on 



masonry, however, the intermediate coat is 
sometimes omitted and the finish coat applied 
directly to the first coat. For best results no 
plaster coat should be more than yi inch thick. 
When the framework of the walls is composed 
of wood studding, lath and plaster are usually 
applied to both sides of the studding, forming 
a double wall, but for small buildings and sheds 
the plaster covering on metal lath applied to 
the studding outside is often all that is re- 
quired. This is particularly true of such struc- 
tures as the average farm outbuildings. In 
such cases the lath should be given a coat of 
plaster on the inner surface as soon as the first 
exterior coat has hardened sufficiently. This 
will thoroughly cover the metal and protect 
it against rust from dampness. In addition it 
will add strength by stiffening the frame. 

Among the tables published on page 181 
will be found one for estimating the amount 
of cement and sand required to cover walls 
with stucco of different thickness and propor- 
tions of mixture. This table does not take 
into consideration waste of mortar. Waste, 




Stucco with architectural trimstone medallion over 
doorway 



120 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




A before and after illustration. Stucco was applied to metal lath 



however, can be lessened by placing a plank 
on the ground at the base of the wall while 
plastering to catch mortar as it falls. None 
of this waste should be used after it has com- 
menced to harden. In fact, every batch of 
stucco mortar should be completely used up 
before it is thirty minutes old. 

For the first coat a mixture of 1 part cement 
to \y!t parts clean, coarse, well-graded sand is 
generally used. Sometimes hydrated lime is 
used in the first coat, as well as in subsequent 
ones. The second and following coats should 
be applied only after the first coat has thor- 
oughly hardened, but preferably before it has 
had time to dry out completely. The first 
and second coats should be scratched with 
some kind of a saw- toothed tool, so as to 
roughen the surface and provide for a better 
bond of subsequent coats. 

Several surface finishes may be given to 
stucco — smooth, brushed, rough-cast, and 
pebble-dash. The smooth finish is obtained 
by bringing the final coat to a true and even 
plane with a wooden float or trowel. A wooden 
float is preferable because the steel trowel is 
likely to be overused and bring to the surface 
a film of neat cement which hair cracks. 

The brushed surface is secured by using a 
wire brush or broom after the surface has partly 
hardened, giving a uniformly pleasing effect. 

The rough-cast finish is obtained by throw- 
ing against the wall from the hand or from a 
paddle or swab of tightly bound pliable twigs 
the prepared mixture for the finish coat. 
Sometimes a portion of the sand is replaced 
by an equal amount of small, even-sized peb- 
bles, producing the pebble-dash, the pebbles 
being thoroughly wet and mixed in a thin 
cement and water grout, then thrown against 



the plaster coat while soft with sufficient force 
to make them partly embed in the surface. 
Some practice is required to produce a uni- 
form surface finish by slap-dash or pebble- 
dash treatment. The texture of this finish 
varies in accordance with the size of the peb- 
bles used in the mixture. It is very important 
that dust and all foreign material be removed 
from the pebbles and sand before they are 
used in the mixture. 

In doing stucco work it is well to lay out 
a definite area to be done during one day's 
operations, so that the entire section can be 
completed within the specified time. This will 
produce uniformity of texture and color and 
will prevent the appearance of irregular line 
markings on the finished surface, indicating 
where the work was interrupted for a time. 
Measure materials so as not to have varia- 
tions in color owing to differing proportions. 

It is also very essential to protect the plaster 
from freezing temperatures by covering with 
canvas or burlap hung up against the walls; 
also to protect newly placed stucco against 
too rapid drying out from sun or wind. In the 
latter case the protective covering should be 
kept wet, and after the plaster surface has 
hardened sufficiently to permit spraying with 
water, the wall should be kept sprinkled for 
several days. This practice is insisted upon by 
the most approved specifications for stucco, 
yet any one who has observed stuccoing in 
process has probably noted that the precau- 
tion is almost invariably omitted. 

Sometimes coloring-matter is used in the 
finish coat. Only permanent mineral pig- 
ments should be used, and the variety of colors 
possible is somewhat limited, owing to the fact 
that many colors fade. 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



121 




An ideal poultry house is warm and dry in winter and easily opened to sun and air in summer 

Concrete in Poultry Raising 



THE floors and walls of a poultry house 
should be constructed of concrete. 

The site for the poultry house should be 
upon dry soil. If it does not have a natural 
drainage, tile drainage should be installed. A 
gentle slope toward the south is desirable, and 
the house should have plenty of south windows 
so that the sunlight will be admitted during 
the greater part of the day. If a southern ex- 
posure is impossible, an eastern exposure is 
the next best. 

A large amount of window space is desirable 
because sunlight is one of the most efficient 
germ destroyers. On the other hand, too much 
glass will result in making the house extremely 
hot in summer and cold in winter. The best 
system by which sufficient fresh air and sun- 
light can be secured is by the combined use 
of cloth and glass sash. Additional ventila- 
tion may be secured by the use of roof or wall 
ventilators. A good general rule is to have 
one square foot of window space for every 
ten square feet of floor space. 

Walls should be made as smooth and free 
from projections as possible, to facilitate 
cleaning and disinfecting. Monolithic or con- 
crete block walls can be made smooth if care 
is taken, so that no plaster or other finish 
will be necessary. An inside coat of white- 
wash is always helpful. Windows should be 
constructed so they will not accumulate litter. 

The recommended sizes of poultry houses 
are given in bulletins issued by the various 
State Agricultural Experiment Stations. The 
space required per fowl decreases as the size of 
the house increases, and for this reason it iswell 



to build the poultry house large. A pen 20 by 
20 feet is large enough to accommodate 100 
hens. They should have plenty of room to 
scratch and exercise properly, as this helps 
toward egg production. It is always safer to 
allow too much than too little floor space. 

A concrete floor in combination with a con- 
crete foundation makes the house sanitary, 
easy to keep clean, and keeps out rats and 
other marauding rodents. The floor should 
be high enough above the surface of the ground 
to prevent water running in from the outside. 
About three inches of sand or earth should be 
kept on the floor when in use, and this should 
be replaced often enough so that it will not 
become foul. Several inches of straw or chaff 
should be kept on top of the sand in order to 
make the fowls scratch for their food. 

Fowls enjoy a sand wallow and it is also a 
help in keeping them free from lice. Such a 
wallow may be provided by curbing off a 
small space in one corner of the house and 
keeping it filled with sand. A small amount 
of coal ashes may be mixed with the sand, but 
the wallow should not be filled entirely with 
ashes because they absorb moisture too readily. 
The wallowing box should be cleaned fre- 
quently and the sand not allowed to become 
damp or filthy. 

To facilitate the placing of wire fencing 
around the chicken run, concrete posts will 
be of advantage. Concrete feed containers 
will prove a very practical adjunct to the 
poultry house, protecting the grain from rats. 
A fresh supply of water can be made available 
by the use of concrete. 



122 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



x Coping 



Li^U" Concrete 
tile drji'n 




uOj&di 
veniilator 



Grade 



Hast Elzvatioh. 
Poultry profits depend upon proper housing 



POULTRY HOUSE 
1:2:4 Mix 

Footings = 58 cu. ft. 

Walls = 283 cu. ft. 

Floor = 87 cu. ft. 

Roof = 108 cu. ft. 

Total 536 cu. ft. or 20 cu. yds. 



44 



Material Required 

Lehigh cement = 30 bbls. 
Sand = 9 cu. yds. 

Pebbles = 18 cu. yds. 



Reinforcing 

yq' round rods @ 18' = 79.2 lin. ft. or 531 lbs. 



Well Covers and Linings 



A CONCRETE well lining should extend 
■* *- into a well from six to eight feet below 
ground level, or to a sufficient depth to prevent 
animals from burrowing below it and to keep 
seepage of surface water out. When a new 
well is being built, it is desirable to line it with 
concrete from bottom to top. The work is 
thus finished for all time. 

To apply lining to an old well, remove the 
cover and any existing lining to the depth at 
which it is proposed to place the concrete. At 
this place a platform must be built to form 
a stage on which to work. This may rest on 
the old lining or be supported against the soil. 
On this platform the forms for placing the con- 
crete lining may be built. These should be 
one inch by four inch strips, beveled slightly 



at their edges, so that when tightly assembled, 
they will form practically a circle with tight 
joints. These boards should be braced with 
two by fours placed closely enough to provide 
sufficient strength to hold fresh concrete. A 
sketch on the following page shows essentials 
of construction. 

As a rule, only interior forms will be needed 
if the old lining is carefully removed so that 
the earth back of it does not cave in. Concrete 
should be placed carefully so as not to knock 
down earth. 

Forms should be left in place until the con- 
crete has thoroughly hardened. Then they 
may be removed and the support or platform 
built for casting the concrete cover slab. Or 
if this is not so large as to be too heavy to be 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



123 




A concrete well cover is sanitary and serviceable 



handled by two or three men it may be cast 
separately in a form made for that purpose, 
and when hardened, be rolled to its position 
over the well curb. The platform should be 
not less than four inches thick, reinforced with 
J-inch round rods placed eight or ten inches 
center to center and 1 inch from the bottom 
face. 

A small opening must be cast in the plat- 
form to permit passage of pump pipe and 
a larger one to serve as a manhole when the 



well has to be cleaned out. This manhole 
should have a tight-fitting concrete cover. 

The reinforcement required for well plat- 
form and well walls depends entirely upon the 
size of the well. Great care should be taken to 
have the reinforcement thoroughly embedded 
to prevent rust due to dampness. 

The construction is similar to that of an 
underground cistern, and the information on 
pages 112 and 113, under "Cisterns," may 
help in the building or the resurfacing of a well. 



r/"*4"£>e ve/ec/ sfr/ps 

III I 1 I I I I ! I I I il| 



for forminq 
cfepress/on 
for scaffo/cf 




Sectional Plan 




Section A-A 

OmiHiny scaffofc/ 




"p Qt£//r*/#r0/i 



'< .'- 



rnr7sarT-i" , ^ , J/l^>. ~ -i 



i • * Omni i 



Openinq for pump \ \ 




Concrete wa//f 



Plan 

Pump hofe pfvg- 



no/e p/vg~~. 

\~~rf (Monho/e coi/er 

, , I — L — c- Vy ; ■;. - <~:~i 



[?■■■■«■■■ ■-•■■■■■' ■ c.-j.-V- >p 

i — ttt 1 ^ - "^ ~"~?r 



mdm 



/?<?/'/? fore /np 



Section 



Detail of typical well lining and cover 



124 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




Concrete is ideal for a smokehouse because it is fireproof and ratproof 



Smokehouses 



|"T SEEMS ridiculous that farmers should 
■*■ produce all the meat used in the country and 
should then go to town and buy from the local 
butcher, at fancy retail prices, the meat which 
they raised and sold at wholesale. Every 
farmer, therefore, should have his own smoke- 
house for the curingof the home supply of meat. 
Concrete is ideal for a smokehouse because 
it is fireproof and ratproof. The smokehouse 
may be either rectangular or circular. A circu- 
lar structure is convenient if forms like those 
for building monolithic silos are available. A 
particular advantage of a circular structure is 
that distribution of smoke is more uniform than 
in a square structure. The fire-box should be 
located entirely outside of the smokehouse 
proper, to insure better regulation of fire and 



smoke control. Down draft into the flue lead- 
ing to the center of the smokehouse reduces 
the draft somewhat and makes a denser smoke, 
which is the desired result. Dimensions of the 
house will vary in accordance with require- 
ments. It is preferable to hang meat at least 
seven feet above the floor, for the double pur- 
pose of securing even smoking and to keep it 
away from extreme heat. 

Concrete block may be used for building 
smokehouse walls, care being taken to lay 
block up with well-filled joints. No reinforcing 
will be required when eight-inch block are used 
for walls. A concrete smokehouse should not 
be used until the concrete is at least thirty days 
old, as heat from the fire will cause the con- 
crete to dry out and become soft and crumbly. 



SMOKEHOUSE— 1 : 2 : 4 Mix 



Wall 


195 cu. 


ft 


Foundations 


85 cu. 


ft 


Footing 


51 cu. 


ft 


Footing 


23 cu. 


ft 


Foundation 


38 cu. 


ft 


Wall 


46 cu. 


ft 


Floor 


19 cu. 


ft 


Roof 


30 cu. 


ft 


Roof 


10 cu. 


ft 



497 cu. ft. = 18.4 cu. yds. 



Quantities of materials needed 
for concrete to build a smoke- 
house illustrated on page 125, 
8' 0" X 9' 0" X 12' 6" high. For 
design of roof and reinforcement 
necessary see tabulation on 
pages 106 and 107 



Material Required 

Lehigh cement = 27 bbls. 
Sand = 8 cu. yds. 

Pebbles =16 cu. vds. 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



125 



m. 




A concrete smokehouse. 
Bill of materials, page 124 



ii- 

l l 



Side elevation 



r"n 



T3 



End elevation 



Smoke 
Vent 



77^ 




Section A-A 



,i *o 



An 






y s>i 



Tl 



B 



>~>-Vent IN __.'""! 



5 ii_ ::L__J "I 



B 






-^ZZ7 



■5-5" 



h—/S' 



,-" A 



V 






6r 



-UL 



Plan 



P 



•*■/<? 



Top View of 
i' Ventilator 

Oq with Cover 
> Removed 

1 




Section 
Detail of ventilator 



126 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




The first consideration for profitable hog raising is sanitary quarters 

Hog Raising 



HOG houses should be located convenient to 
the hog lot for range where the animals 
are to exercise and also convenient to feeding 
facilities. Adjuncts to the hog house, all of 
which had best be built of concrete, are hog 
wallows, feeding floors, troughs, and watering 
tanks. 

The feeding floor described under "Floors, 
Walks, and Pavements," pages 64 to 68, will be 
recognized as an easy piece of construction and 
of great value. The floors of the hog house 
should be graded toward drains to allow for 
flushing, as cleanliness is important. 

Troughs and watering tanks with details of 
construction are explained on pages 93 to 96, 
under heading, "Troughs, Tanks, and Bins." 

The tendency of hogs to rub themselves 
against their enclosures demands that the 
run be bounded by a \ 
strong fence. Con- 
crete is both strong 
and permanent. The 



posts as well as rails should be constructed of 
concrete. See details under "Concrete Prod- 
ucts," pages 76 to 92. 

A concrete wallow is nothing but a tank of 
suitable size and depth to permit the animals 
to cool themselves in clean water. In addition, 
the tank may be made to serve dipping pur- 
poses in that germicidal solutions may be mixed 
with the water, or if in the form of oils, floated 
on its surface, and the hogs in using the wallow 
will take " their own medicine." 

Hog houses and all of their accessories should 
be located with particular reference to a well- 
drained site. A hog house should face south 



2 "x 4 "Rafters 2 4 "o. c. 




Table showing height to place windows. 

Distance A^ for latitudes from 30 to 46 
degrees N, and for farrowing periods 
from January to April. 


Distance A. 


Latitude 


Jan. J 


Feb. J 


Marl 


April J 


30deqrees N, 


9ft Oin 


l/ft. /in. 


IS ft Sin. 




32 


8ft Sih 


/Oft 4 m 


14ft. Sin 




34 




1ft. 8 in. 


13ft. Sin. 




30 




1ft. Of/?. 


12 ft. 7 in. 




38 




8ft 4m. 


lift, fin. 




40 






10ft. I/in 


/6 ft. 9m 


42 






/Oft. 2/n 


IS ft 7/n. 


44 






Iff G/n. 


14 ft. Bin. 


46 






8 ft /On 


13 ft. 6 in. 


48 






8ft. ■?//? 


/2 ft. 7in. 



Sshoid partitions \ 
fender^ 
Slope floor toward 
gutter '<4per ft.-} 



| | Well packed earth 



, 'Extend foundation 
below frost line and 
. fa solid footing 



SECTION A- A 



Section through typical hog house 




?W7r?xrxr?77 




F loor line-? f 

Detail or Fender 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



127 



Suspended 
ceiling. ■ 




L.l. 



Plah 



i. , i/-\8" 6\obe veM'ila+or 
I -[ Swinging sash- 




{6ro.de. 



East &- West Elevation 



A double house, such as shown here, should have its long way run north and south. So located, 

one row of pens receives light from the morning sun and the other from the afternoon sun, 

and sunlight is indispensable to sanitation 



128 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



"m 


« 5'-0 

.. w~ Slope walK 


- >* 




Curbing-? 




1 


1 


f 

1 






' ■* 6- 


"fj 


Apron 


\ 


l i 



Footing. 



Footing. 



ILL 



Concrete Walk 



t -5ipe Elevation — ■ 
13J-0" 




f^St"\> y-jv^\ 7 Z^.--g:-.'':-.p:>:V g -.:t^:| 



Twr 






— LOH&fTUPIMAL SECTION. 






5-0" 



Concrete 
Walk 



Curb 



1 ^ discharge 
pipe 



9 i " 

Tar joint ground 
inner face of wa/l' 
footings 



Corrugated 
incline 



Combined overflow 
and discharge pipe 



'Z.+ 



& — 



- -Pi. AN — 



- 6 



TJ£" 




Material Required 

Lehigh cement = 9.0 bbls. 
Sand = 2.5 cu. yds. 

Pebbles = 4.0 cu. yds. 



HOG WALLOW— 1 : 2 : 3 Mix 

SIDE WALLS OF TANK 

2.83' X .5 X 13.5 X 2 = 34.00 

END WALLS OF TANK 

.5 X 2.83 X 8.5 X 2 = 24.00 

FLOOR OF TANK 

.41' X 7.5' X 14' = 42.00 

APPROACH SIDE AND END WALLS 

2.15 X .5 X 17.5 = 22.00 

APPROACH FLOOR 

.41 X 4.5 X 7.5 = 14.00 



136.00 cu. ft. = 
5 cu. yds. 




A concrete wallow is nothing but a tank of suitable size and depth to permit the 
animals to cool themselves in clean water 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



129 




This evidence of hog contentment should forever silence the opinion that hogs prefer 
a mud hole to a clean concrete hog wallow 



unless it is of the double monitor type, in which 
case its length should extend in a north and 
south direction, thus permitting one row of 
pens to get sunlight in the morning and the 
other in the afternoon. While concrete floors 
are not cold for stock if the animals are suffi- 
ciently bedded, hogs are a little more difficult 
to provide for in this way than other animals 
because of their tendency to disturb bedding 
placed for them, so it is well to build a remov- 
able slat floor in one corner, or at one side of 
each pen, for bedding quarters. If the hog 
house is of the monitor type, the passageway 



between rows of pens should be wide enough to 
serve as a driveway, in which case the concrete 
floor must be made thick enough to withstand 
the traffic of loaded wagons. 

Concrete dipping vats need no care other 
than covering them up or so inclosing them 
that persons and animals cannot accidentally 
fall into them. Concrete is not injured by 
moisture. It will not rot or rust out. It re- 
quires no repairs. A concrete dipping vat, built 
of good materials and properly constructed, 
will always be ready for use and will prove a 
paying investment. 




Concrete feeding troughs are a great aid in keeping the food from being spilled over 

the ground 



130 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




A concrete dipping vat 



The dimensions of ground pits for dipping letters at the heads of each column correspond- 
vats are shown in the following table, the ing to those shown in design below. 



Kind 


W 


N 


D 


L 


E 


B 


A 


G 


Horses 

Cattle 

Sheep 

Hogs 


Ft. in. 
5 10 

5 4 
3 4 
3 4 


Ft. in. 
3 4 
3 4 

2 4 
2 4 


Ft. in. 
8 8 
7 8 

5 8 
5 8 


Ft. in. 

55 
51 
46 
36 


Ft. in. 

7 6 
6 8 
5 
5 


Ft. in. 

31 
31 
31 
31 


Ft. in. 

16 6 

13 4 
10 
10 


Ft. in. 
3 9 

3 4 
2 6 
2 6 




F 


H 


C 


O 


T 


Lehigh 


Sand 


Stone 


Horses 


Ft. in. 
2 2 
1 11 

1 5 
1 5 


Ft. in. 

3 9 

3 4 
2 6 
2 6 


Ft. in. 

3 9 

3 4 
2 6 
2 6 


Ft. in. 
18 7 

15 4 
11 6 
11 6 


Ft. in. 
8 

8 
8 
8 


Barrels 

43 
37 
24 
19 


Cu. yds. 
13 
11 

7 
5K 


Cu. yds. 
26 


Cattle 

Sheep 

Hogs 


22 

14 
11 




ktMm&r*' .W*^* ^ 




Details of construction of a concrete dipping vat 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



131 




Corn Cribs 



FT HAS been estimated that a rat will de- 

■*- stroy or consume between $2 and $4 worth of 
grain each year if it has the opportunity. Rats 
have been effectively built out of corn cribs by 
using concrete. The most approved type of 
construction employs a block similar to those 
used in concrete block silos, the difference being 
that openings are cast into the block at the 
time it is made to provide ventilation. These 
openings are made rat and mouse proof by 
embedding wire mesh in the block when cast. 
Usually block corn cribs are built circular in 
form, and have at their center a flue or chim- 
ney connected with air inlets at the base to 



complete the ventilating system. Another 
type of concrete corn crib is built of special 
concrete stave also cast with openings to pro- 
vide ventilation. 

All doors should be wholly of metal or so 
protected by metal covering that rats cannot 
gnaw through. Corn cribs should have con- 
crete floors raised sufficiently above ground 
level to prevent dampness. Floors should 
slope uniformly in one direction so that if rain 
blows into the openings during storms, water 
will drain out freely and quickly. Usually 
concrete corn cribs and concrete grain tanks 
are finished with metal roofs. 



132 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




A concrete highway under construction 



Construction of Highways 



THE popularity of concrete as a highway 
paving material, and the evidence that 
time has proved its superior merits, are indi- 
cated by the following figures. Total yardage 
of all kind of concrete highway pavement — 
roads, streets, and alleys — at the end of 1908 
was slightly less than 600,000 square yards. 
At the end of 1921 the total was close to 
275,000,000 square yards. During 1919, 1920, 
and 1921 the concrete highway pavement, built 
on the basis of an average width of 18 feet, 
was approximately 5000 miles each year. 

W 



In every state in the Union there are concrete 
roads. Cities in every state of the Union have 
concrete streets, and probably the same is true 
with respect to concrete alleys, since in many 
cases alleys are referred to as driveways. In 
the following the term highway pavement will 
be considered as applying to roads, streets, and 
alleys, except where otherwise noted. 

As a rule, most concrete highway pavements 
are of one-course construction. A concrete 
highway pavement — road, street, or alley — is 
a mixture of clean, hard, well-graded sand and 




/7a x/ mum so 

I CM/nimum Too 

^ — K .. P L. TT -±.. ■ ■ -^T— 



3" 






t Concrete.* a . 



A - 



. v> » t > 1 1 diiwwwwwi ijsii i iij/A 






4- to 4. Longitudinal 'jo/nt 



Curb 
Cinders 



Crushed 
stone or 
pit run 
gravel with 



sand removed 



ONE-COURSE CONCRETE PAVEMENT 

WITH SEPARATE CURB 

w 
a. 



-5atter3"inia 



r-oarrer j> mic 
H'Radtus^ ^-f^rwble upto &j^e^rcemen£_ 




-^ .Concrete -a 






Integra/ curb 

ONE-COURSE CONCRETE PAVEMENT 

WITH INTEGRAL CURB 



77?f 



Note: "W" denotes 
width of pavement 



"a" =not less than 6" 

"b" = not less than "a"+2" 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



133 




Improved methods of road building are developing new types of machinery 



pebbles or broken stone combined with Port- 
land cement and water, all of the ingredients 
being thoroughly mixed and then placed on a 
properly prepared subgrade to a thickness of 
seven inches or more, so as to form slabs the 
width of the road and 30 feet or more long. 
The result is a rigid, unyielding, durable pave- 
ment, with non-skid surface, that is usable 
every day of the year, regardless of weather. 

Concrete roads built in 1909 are still giving 
good service. 

Concrete highway pavements are often the 
subject of much adverse criticism because some 
of them have cracked. Most of this cracking 
has been due to insufficient drainage or to im- 
proper preparation of the subbase. Although 
cracks do not affect the ridiny quality of w 



the road nor, if kept filled with tar and coarse 
sand, have they any effect upon the durability 
of the pavement, they are unsightly and can be 
avoided by proper construction methods. 

The following table shows the results of a 
series of tests made to determine the tractive 
resistance of concrete highways: 

PULL IN POUNDS PER TON 

Over a level, unsurfaced concrete 27.6 

Concrete base, f 8-inch skin top asphaltic oil 

and screenings 49.2 

Waterbound macadam, level, good condition 64.3 
Concrete base, ^-inch Topeka top, level, 

good condition C8.5 

Gravel road, good condition, level 78.2 

Earth road, fine dust, level 92.0 

Earth road, stiff mud on top, firm under- 
neath, level 218.0 

Loose gravel, not packed down, new 

road, level 263.0 



Maximums!) 




Wearing co urse not less than E- 
\ f Minimum 7ob rReinforcement j 






<4 to 4 Longitudinal joint 



Curb 
Cinders 



JL" 

aRadius 
I" Radius 



Crushed 
stone or 
pit run 
grave/ with 
sand re mo ved 




TWO-COURSE CONCRETE PAVEMENT 

WITH SEPARATE CURB 
W 



batter 3"m 12' 



^Variable up to 6 C» 



Reinforcemen t 



2J 



-.4': ;•<■•*• 



1-""«1' 



9 v.»-»" T.'v-'':T*-V: v . y:.'."V^. •'>••'-«*■"••■"- ".?'";■?..- '■'.■-■*■'.' \ 



.<* 



Integral curb 



Note: "W 

width of pavement 



TWO-COURSE CONCRETE PAVEMENT 
WITH INTEGRAL CURB 

denotes "a" = base not less than 5" 



"b" = base not less than "a"+2" 



134 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



ONE-COURSE CONCRETE HIGHWAY 

riaximumisb^ 

Mmimumflfoi . ^ 6" Minimum s-Ar c of circle i 



Slope I 2 to I 




Wi ^:y ^. Concrete* * -± -i-eJAi* 
I'Radius 

^w up to /fl x 



SECTION ON FILL 



*<£Coricre1~e;*C: ' :*■'£ kr. 



/"Radius- 
Arc of circle - p 



W/W^WUV^^JW^tf'" 1 ' 1 " 1 ^^^' 1 "" 



'iw*>. ff#) 



(3 H/mmum- 
2 w up to IQ L 



Maximum % 
Xtfrl/nimumrtb 




4 l to 6- 



£&£> 



Note: "W" denotes width of pavement 

SECTION IN CUT AND ON LEVEL GROUND 



Ui 



about 



Another and later series of tests were made 
on various types of highways to prove the 
low tractive resistance of concrete on the basis 
of gasoline consumption. Five two-ton trucks 
were used and runs were made over sections 
of paved and unpaved roads. The average 
mileage per gallon of gasoline used, with the 
trucks loaded to capacity, is summarized in 
the following table: 

Earth 5.78 miles per gallon 

Fair gravel 7.19 miles per gallon 

Good gravel 9.39 miles per gallon 

Fair bituminous macadam 9.48 miles per gallon 

Fair brick 9.88 miles per gallon 

Good brick 11.44 miles per gallon 

Concrete 11.78 miles per gallon 

In other words, more than double the mile- 
age was obtained on concrete as was obtained 



on earth the same quantity of gasoline being 
used. 

The non-skid surface of a correctly con- 
structed concrete highway makes it the safest 
type for both horse-drawn and motor vehicles. 

The fundamental requirements demanded 
for the satisfactory concrete highway are un- 
derdrainage — preparation of subbase, selection 
of materials — thorough mixing, careful placing 
and curing. These, with efficient engineering 
and careful supervision, will give a permanent 
and safe highway. 

Concrete highway pavements are both plain 
and reinforced. Reinforcement is particularly 
recommended where the concrete is laid upon 
a subbase such as a fill that may not have at- 
tained maximum settlement and across other 



ONE-COURSE CONCRETE ALLEY 

Not less than &" uniform thicKness 



W 



Are of c roe jjfer C— *" than ^>f Umform 5,ope 

jy: — — * 'i~r 



^Longit ud mo> joint 
adjacent to buildings 
or masonry -Structures 



^^^^v^tvWwMM^^ ' ^^^W^ ^- 1 '^ 7 



samt 



^wiii -ww* 114 M * 



Slope of subgrade same 
as surface of concrete. 

CROSS-SECTION 
Note: "W" denotes width of pavement 



7 



Longitudinol joint 
adjacent to buildings 
or masonry structures 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



135 



unstable spots. It seems particularly effective 
also in preventing cracks which may occur in 
the pavement from opening to any consider- 
able extent. Opinions as to the desirability of 
reinforced pavement as against unreinforced 
pavement thick enough to produce correspond- 
ing strength are still at variance, although 
the trend of the times is indicated in the pres- 
ent practice of the Pennsylvania State High- 
way Department, which requires that all con- 
crete roads shall be reinforced. 

Demand for utmost safety to traffic has re- 
sulted in more attention being given to details 
of design and construction. Among these are 
easier curves, superelevated and widened so 
that motor vehicles can take them in safety 
without unnecessary reduction of speed. In 
general, the tendency is toward wider roads, 
18 feet being the minimum recommended for 
average highways. 

In certain cases roads as well as streets are 
bordered by curbs where curves are sharp, 
and through cuts where the pavement surface 
serves also to drain the cut, as the curb helps 
form a gutter and thus prevents washing of 
soil at pavement edges. 



Concrete roads and streets are slightly 
crowned at their center to drain surface water 
from rains quickly. The crown is so slight 
that traffic uses the entire surface with equal 
facility. Concrete alleys are sometimes crowned 
at the center, although, where the gradient 
and permanent structures bordering an alley 
permit it, the surface is usually dished, that is, 
it is lower at the center than at the sides, and 
the pavement therefore acts as a gutter to 
carry water to sewer mains. 

The tendency during the past year or two 
has been to increase the thickness of concrete 
pavements, and to use richer mixtures than 
were common to early practice. Many im- 
provements have been made in the methods of 
handling materials and organizing construc- 
tion gangs. Finishing machines have largely 
replaced hand labor. 

Fundamental principles, on pages 153 to 185, 
give valuable information which is applicable 
to highway construction. 

The table below gives quantities of materials 
required for concrete pavements of various 
widths and thicknesses per linear foot and 
square yards of surface: 



Area of Cross-section, Cubic Yards, Quantities* of Materials Required Per Linear Foot, and Square 
Yards of Surface for Concrete Roads for Various Widths and Thicknesses Shown 







Thickness 


Area of 
Cross- 


Cubic 
Yards 


Square 


Lehigh Cement 
Barrels 


Sand, Cu 


sic Yards 


Rock or Pebbles 
Cubic Yards 


Width 








section 
Square 


Concrete 


Yards 
per Mile 














Feet 








per Linear 
















Sides 
Inches 


Center 
Inches 


Average 
Inches 


Feet 


Foot of 
Pavement 




1:2:3 


1:1K = 3 


1:2:3 


l:l}4:3 


1:2:3 


1:1K:3 


9 


6 


8 


7.333 


5.500 


.204 


5,280 


.355 


.389 


.106 


.086 


.157 


.173 


10 


6 


8 


7.333 


6.111 


.227 


5,867 


.394 


.433 


.118 


.095 


.175 


.193 


18 


6 


8 


7.333 


11.000 


.407 


10,560 


.708 


.777 


.212 


.171 


.313 


.346 


18 


7 


9 


8.333 


12.500 


.463 


10,560 


.806 


.884 


.241 


.194 


.357 


.324 


18 


8 


10 


9.333 


14.000 


.519 


10,560 


.903 


.991 


.270 


.218 


.400 


.441 


20 


6 


8 


7.333 


12.222 


.453 


11,733 


.788 


.866 


.235 


.190 


.349 


.385 


20 


7 


9 


8.333 


13.777 


.510 


11,733 


.887 


.974 


.265 


.214 


.393 


.434 


20 


8 


10 


9.333 


15.555 


.576 


11,733 


1.002 


1.100 


.300 


.242 


.444 


.490 


24 


6 


8 


7.333 


14.667 


.543 


14,080 


.945 


1.037 


.282 


.228 


.418 


.462 


24 


7 


9 


8.333 


16.667 


.617 


14,080 


1.074 


1.178 


.321 


.259 


.475 


.524 


24 


8 


10 


9.333 


18.667 


.691 


14,080 


1.202 


1.320 


.359 


.290 


.532 


.587 


26 


6 


8^ 


7.667 


16.611 


.615 


15,253 


1.070 


1.175 


.320 


.258 


.474 


.523 


26 


7 


9y 


8.667 


18.777 


.695 


15,253 


1.208 


1.327 


.361 


.292 


.535 


.591 


26 


8 


my 


9.667 


20.944 


.776 


15,253 


1.350 


1.482 


.404 


.326 


.598 


.660 


27 


6 


9 


8.000 


18.000 


.667 


15,840 


1.161 


1.274 


.347 


.280 


.514 


.567 


27 


8 


11 


10.000 


22.500 


.833 


15,840 


1.449 


1.591 


.433 


.350 


.641 


.708 


30 


6 


9 


8.000 


20.000 


.741 


17,600 


1.289 


1.415 


.385 


.311 


.571 


.630 


30 


8 


11 


10.000 


25.000 


.926 


17,600 


1.611 


1.769 


.482 


.389 


.713 


.787 


36 


6 


9y 2 


8.333 


25.000 


.926 


21,120 


1.611 


1.769 


.482 


.389 


.713 


.787 


36 


8 


\\y 


10.333 


31.000 


1.148 


21,120 


1.998 


2.193 


.597 


.482 


.884 


.976 


40 


6 


10 


8.667 


28.888 


1.070 


23,467 


1.862 


2.044 


.556 


.449 


.824 


.910 


40 


8 


12 


10.667 


35.555 


1.317 


23,467 


2.292 


2.515 


.685 


.553 


1.014 


1.119 



Lehigh cement for J l:lK:3Mix: 1.91 bbls. Sand for / 1: IK: 3 Mix: 0.42 cu. yd. Stone for / 1 : \yi:S Mix: 0.85cu. yd. 

1 cu. yd. concrete \ 1:2:3 Mix: 1.74 bbls. 1 cu. yd. concrete \ 1:2: 3 Mix: 0.52 cu. yd. 1 cu. yd. concrete \ 1 : 2 : 3 Mix : 0.77 cu. yd. 



* Based on 1 bbl. Lehigh cement equals 4 cu. ft.: voids in stone, 45 per cent. From Taylor and Thompson, "Concrete, Plain and 
Reinforced." 



136 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




The monolithic concrete structure fulfils all requirements of an ideal silo 



Concrete Silos 



SILOS are universally circular in form. 
For such structures concrete may be used 
in any one of three ways, monolithic, concrete 
block, and concrete stave. Each particular 
type of concrete silo will do all that a silo is 
intended to do, each combines all requirements 
in a degree exceeding any other class of con- 
struction, and each has its advocates. 

Silos must be air-tight, watertight, strong, 
durable, require little or no maintenance, have 
smooth interior walls, and be permanent. If 
the proper method of construction has been 
followed, the silo will be fireproof. No quality 
is more desirable than fireproofness when it 
is considered that the silo usually contains a 
complete season's crop of feed. 

Some types of silos other than concrete are 
a continual expense. When empty, they are 
likely to blow down because they lack the 
weight necessary to stability. 

Many farmers have put up their own concrete 
silos, using one of the three types of construc- 
tion mentioned. For monolithic construction, 
special circular steel forms should be provided 
because the cost and labor of making wood 
forms are seldom justified for a single structure. 



Few farmers are warranted in investing in a 
set of commercial forms since one silo is usu- 
ally sufficient on the average farm. However, 
farmers of a community have been known to 
join in buying a set of commercial forms and 
hiring them out to one another in the same 
manner that community mixers have been pur- 
chased and used. Certain equipment besides 
the forms is necessary. 

It is better to engage an experienced con- 
tractor who specializes in the building of silos 
to move his outfit to the farm and put up the 
structure. 

The silo should be located where it will 
serve the greatest convenience in feedingopera- 
tions. At one end of the barn or at the middle 
of one side is a good location. The structure 
is usually connected to the barn by a short 
covered passageway. 

The tables on the following pages show vari- 
ous data relative to capacity of silos required 
to meet different feeding conditions, quantity 
of silage, reinforcement, quantity of materials, 
etc. These will be found very useful for refer- 
ence when deciding upon the size structure 
to build. 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



137 



DIAMETER OF SILO REQUIRED TO FEED VARIOUS NUMBERS OF ANIMALS 





Approximate 
Minimum 

Pounds to be 
Fed Daily 


Minimum Number of Each Kind of Stock to be Fed from Each Size Silo 


in Feet 


Dairy Cows 


Beef Cattle 


Stock Cattle 


500-lb. Calves 


Horses 


Sheep 


10 
12 
14 
16 
18 
20 


525 
755 
1030 
1340 
1700 
2100 


13 
19 
26 

34 
42 
53 


21 
30 

41 
54 
68 
84 


26 

38 

52 

67 

85 

105 


44 

63 

86 

112 

142 
175 


48 

69 

94 

122 

155 

191 


175 
252 
344 
446 
567 
700 



APPROXIMATE CAPACITY OF ROUND SILOS 







Inside Diameter of Silo in Feet and Capacity in Tons 




Height of Silo 
Feet 








10 Feet 


12 Feet 


14 Feet 


16 Feet 


18 Feet 


20 Feet 




Tons 


Tons 


Tons 


Tons 


Tons 




28 


42 


61 


83 








30 


47 


67 


91 








32 


51 


74 


100 


131 






34 


56 


80 


109 


143 






36 


61 


87 


118 


155 


196 




38 


66 


94 


128 


167 


212 




40 


70 


101 


138 


180 


229 


280 


42 




109 


148 


193 


244 


299 


44 




117 


159 


207 


261 


320 


46 






170 


222 


277 


340 


48 








236 


293 


361 


50 










310 


382 



QUANTITY OF SILAGE REQUIRED AND ECONOMICAL DIAMETER OF SILO FOR THE 

DAIRY HERD 





Feed for 180 Days 


Feed for 240 Days 


Number of Dairy 
Cows in Herd 


Estimated Tonnage of 
Silage Consumed 


Size of Silo 


Estimated Tonnage of 
Silage Consumed 


Size of Silo 




Diameter 


Height 


Diameter 


Height 


13 
15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 
45 
50 
60 
70 


Tons 

47 

54 

72 

90 

108 

126 

144 

162 

180 

216 

252 


Feet 
10 
10 
12 
12 
14 
14 
16 
16 
16 
18 
18 


Feet 

30 
33 
32 
37 
34 
38 
35 
37 
40 
39 
41 


Tons 

63 
72 
96 
123 
144 
168 
192 
216 
240 
288 
336 


Feet 

10 
10 
12 
14 
14 
16 
16 
18 
18 
20 
20 


Feet 

36 
40 
39 
37 
42 
37 
42 
39 
42 
41 
46 



QUANTITY OF CONCRETE MATERIALS FOR MONOLITHIC SILOS OF VARIOUS DIAMETERS 

These figures include footings and floor, but not roof. Walls 6 inches thick. Continuous doors 2 feet wide. 
Figures are for sacks of cement and cubic yards of sand and pebbles 





For Silo 30 Feet High 


For Each Additional 5 Feet in Height 


Inside Diameter 


Lehigh 
Cement 


Sand 


Pebbles or Stone 


Lehigh 
Cement 


Sand 


Pebbles or Stone 


Feet 
10 
12 
14 
16 
18 
20 


Sacks 

116 
140 
164 
188 
212 
236 


Cu. Yds. 

11.0 
13.0 
15.0 
17.3 
19.6 
22.0 


Cu. Yds. 

18.0 
21.5 
25.0 
28.7 
32.6 
36.5 


Sacks 

16.0 
19.2 
22.5 
25.7 
29.0 
32.3 


Cu. Yds. 
1.5 
1.8 
2.1 

2.4 
2.7 
3.0 


Cu. Yds. 
2.4 

2.9 
3.4 
3.8 
4.3 

4.8 



138 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



SPACING OF HORIZONTAL REINFORCING RODS FOR SILOS OF VARIOUS INSIDE DIAMETERS 





10-foot Diameter 


12-foot Diameter 


14-foot Diameter 


16-foot Diameter 


18-foot Diameter 


20-foot Diameter 


Distance in Feet Down 


2^-inch 


J^ -inch 


K-inch 


K-inch 


/-2-inch 


M-inch 


from Top of Silo 


Round Rods* 


Round Rods* 


Round Rods* 


Round Rods* 


Round Rods* 


Round Rods* 




Inches 


Inches 


Inches 


Inches 


Inches 


Inches 


Top 5 ft. 


24 


24 


24 


24 


24 


24 


5 to 10 


24 


24 


24 


24 


24 


24 


10 to 15 


24 


18 


24 


24 


24 


24 


15 to 20 


18 


16 


24 


IS 


18 


16 


20 to 25 


16 


12 


18 


16 


14 


14 


25 to 30 


14 


10 


16 


14 


12 


12 


30 to 35 


12 


9 


14 


12 


10 


10 


35 to 40 


10 


8 


12 


10 


9 


8 


40 to 45 


9 


7 


11 


9 


8 


7K 


45 to 50 


8 


6K 


10 


sy 2 


1V2 


7 



* If square rods are used, increase spacing 30 per cent, but in no case should spacing be greater than 24 inches. 

TRIANGLE MESH REINFORCEMENT 















Inside Diameter of Silo 










Distance 


10 Feet 


12 Feet 


14 Feet 


16 Feet 


18 Feet 


20 Feet 


in Feet 
from Top 


















































Layers 


Style 
No. 


Layers 


Style 
No. 


Layers 


Style 
No. 


Layers 


Style 
No. 


Layers 


Style 
No. 


Layers 


Style 
No. 


Oto 15 


1 


093 


1 


093 




093 




093 




093 


1 


093 


15 to 18 


1 


093 


1 


093 




093 




093 




093 


1 


126 


18 to 21 


1 


093 


1 


093 




093 




126 




126 


1 


126 


21 to 24 


1 


093 


1 


093 




126 




126 




126 


2 


093 


24 to 27 


1 


093 


1 


093 




126 




126 


2 


093 


2 


093 


27 to 30 


1 


093 


1 


126 




126 


2 


093 


2 


093 


2 


093 


30 to 33 


1 


093 


1 


126 


2 


093 


2 


093 


2 


093 


1 each < 


093 & 
126 


33 to 36 


1 


126 


1 


126 


2 


093 


2 


093 


1 each < 


093 & 
126 


1 each < 


093 & 
126 


36 to 39 


1 


126 


2 


093 


2 


093 


2 


093 


1 each < 


093 & 
126 


2 


126 


39 to 42 


1 


126 


2 


093 


2 


093 


1 each < 


093 & 
126 


2 


126 


2 


126 


42 to 45 


1 


126 


2 


093 


1 each I 
1 each < 


093 & 
126 


1 each < 


093 & 
126 


2 


126 


2 


146 


45 to 48 


2 


093 


2 


093 


093 & 
126 


2 


126 


2 


146 


2 


146 


48 to 50 


2 


093 


2 


093 


1 each < 


093 & 
126 


2 


126 


2 


146 


2 


146 



Note: Style No. 093 has number 6 wires spaced 4 inches apart; Style No. 126 has number 4 wires spaced 4 inches apart; Style No. 146 
has number 3 wires spaced 4 inches apart. 



The notes which follow are intended as a 
guide to important requirements of construc- 
tion, thus enabling the farmer to act as in- 
spector on the job, rather than to qualify him 
for doing the actual work himself. 



After a circle corresponding to the outside 
diameter of the silo has been laid out on the 
ground, as shown below, the area thus enclosed 
should be excavated four or five feet so that 
the floor or bottom of the silo will be about 




Arrangement of sweep for laying out silo forms 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



139 



Face inner form 
With EO gauge 
aal. iron. 




See note 
below 




i_ 



Make 8 of 2"xl2 
- 3-6" • 






T 



T 

Wedge 

Make 2 of hardwood 
2" thick. 



r Cut out 
for 2 "a 4"^ 

^L — ^ 

2"} Make 4- 



Cut off these projections 
after form is assembled. 



Outer form v$ 
18 gauge gal. iron, ^p 




D 



Make 4- : 



Details of silo forms that can be made by any handy man around the farm 
Note: If intermittent doors are to be used, trim two ribs E on dotted line 
Use 2x6 inch studding for pieces T. Pieces S and R are made of 2 x 4 inch studding 
Pieces S are set into the ribs and pieces T and R are nailed between them 

DIMENSIONS OF INNER AND OUTER FORM SECTIONS 





Inner Form 


Outer Form 


Inside 

Diameter 

of Silo 


Number of 
Sections in 
Inner Form 


Length 
A 


Length 
B 


20 Gauge Gal. 

Iron 36 in. wide, 

Length of Each 

Piece 


18 Gauge Gal. 

Iron 36 in. wide, 

2 Pes., Length of 

Each Piece 


10 ft. 
12 ft. 
14 ft. 

16 ft. 

18 ft. 
20 ft. 


6 

8 
8 
8 
8 
10 


5'- 0" 
4'- 6^" 

5'- 4" 
6'- 1" 
6'-10K" 
6'- 2" 


4'- 7K" 

4'- \y 2 " 

4'-HK" 

5'- 9y 2 " 

6'- 7K" 
5'-10" 


S'-2K" 

4'-8K" 

5'-6" 

6'-3" 

7'-0?4" 

6'-3" 


18'- 3" 
21'- 5" 
24'- 7" 
27'- 9" 

30'-10K" 

34'- 0" 



r 2 'i 



Material for 14-Foot Silo Form 

5 pieces 2 by 12 by 16 feet, for ribs 

1 piece 2 by 12 by 6 feet, for ribs 

4 pieces 2 by 6 by 12 feet, for studding 

6 pieces 2 by 4 by 12 feet, for studding 

4 pieces 2 by 6 by 10 feet, for connections 
3 pieces 2 by 6 by 8 feet, for continuous 
door form 

2 pieces 2 by 2 by 8 feet, for continuous 
door form 

64 carriage bolts, }4 inch by 4>2 inches 
2 pieces 18 gauge galvanized iron 3 feet 

wide, 24 feet 7 inches long 
8 pieces 20 gauge galvanized iron 3 feet 
wide, 5 feet 6 inches long 
Nails, rivets, lugs, hooks, wedges, etc. 




■ .jA 



-Rafter hook, -£-x2 strap 
iron. See detail above. ' 



& post- 



Details of concrete roof construction 
Wall of 3/IO Hard cinders from soft coal are often used 
as coarse aggregate in concrete roofs to 
lighten the dead load 



Outer form 



140 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




Ground Line 



V 






^^^^1 






Org in 




'Foof/nj 



Foundation pit for silo, showing floor and drain 



that distance below ground level. This will 
reduce the height of the silo above ground. It 
makes the distance shorter for blowing the 
cut silage when filling the structure, and the 
distance below ground level is not too great 
to permit throwing out the last silage for feed- 
ing. It also insures that the foundation will 
start below possible frost penetration. 

At the center of the floor a drain should be 
set to connect with a line of tile to lead away 
surplus liquids from the silage (illustrated at 
top of page). Too great an accumulation of 
such liquid in the silo may develop bursting 
pressure greater than the silo may be able to 
stand. The drain should be trapped so as to 
prevent air from entering. If the ground 
where the silo is built is not perfectly firm so 
as to insure stability of foundation, it is well 
to start the walls on a footing three or four 
feet wide, reinforced with ^-inch steel rods 
30 or 40 inches long, depending upon footing 
width. This forms a sort of a mattress, so to 
speak, that will evenly distribute the load of 



the structure and its contents over a sufficient 
area of soil to insure stability. Concrete in 
the footing should be allowed to harden for 
twenty-four hours at least before starting the 
side walls, and before these are started the 
floors should have been laid. (See table of 
mixtures on page 157 for recognized mix- 
tures for various parts of silos.) Two types 
of doorways are used for silos, intermittent 
and continuous. Either type will do, and it 
is largely a matter of individual preference. 
The commercial silo forms used to-day pro- 
vide for doorway openings as concreting pro- 
gresses, and also permit building a chute 
monolithic with the silo if such is desired. A 
chute makes it easy to throw silage down for 
feeding without it scatteringall over the ground, 
particularly on windy days. 

Reinforcement for Silos 

Accompanying sketches show details of 
reinforcement around doorways. These must 
be very carefully observed, otherwise doorway 






























e== ======== ** 














Opening 
for door 


























































i 



Reinforcement for continuous doorway opening 



Arrangement of reinforcement around intermittent 
doorway openings 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



141 




A concrete silo under construction, showing forms and reinforcing rods 



openings will weaken the structure. Tables 
on page 138 show quantity of reinforcement re- 
quired, both rods and mesh, for silos of various 
inside diameter and height. There should be 
no variation from these recommendations. 

Any one can understand that when a silo has 
been filled with silage the contents subject the 
walls to considerable pressure. This is greatest 
at the bottom, and is also greater than usual 
when considerable liquids are in the silage. As 
the pressure is increased toward the bottom, 
more reinforcement must be used in the lower 
portion of the structure than nearer the top. 
Vertical reinforcement also is needed in all 
monolithic silos. This usually consists of ^i- 
or >2-inch steel rods spaced 30 inches apart 
along a line corresponding to the center of the 
silo wall. Either square twisted or round rods 
may be used. In using any one of the various 
kinds of metal fabric as a substitute for rods 
in reinforcing the silo, it is necessary to know 
that when making such substitution the cor- 
rect amount of metal is used. 

Hoops of horizontal reinforcement where 
rods are used should be wired to the vertical 
with 12- or 14-gauge iron wire so that all rein- 
forcement will be firmly held in correct rela- 
tive position during concreting. As steel rods 
come only in certain lengths, it will be neces- 
sary to use more than one piece for a stretch 
of vertical reinforcement as well as for one of 



the circles or hoops of horizontal reinforce- 
ment. In such cases the rods must be spliced 
by lapping. When jHi-inch rods are used, the 
lap should be not less than 18 inches and for 
^-inch rods 30 inches. 

Reinforcing, as discussed on pages 168 to 172, 
should be carefully studied, as a knowledge of 
the fundamental principles for reinforcing will 
be of material assistance in planning the con- 
crete silo. 

Monolithic Construction 

In building monolithic silos only one com- 
plete ring per day can be cast on the structure. 
Under favorable conditions this concrete will 
have hardened sufficiently during a period of 
twenty-four hours to permit raising forms an 
equal distance for the next day's concreting. 
This procedure is carried on until the structure 
is completed. In cold weather concrete does 
not harden rapidly, so the forms must not be 
raised at the end of twenty-four hours unless 
the concrete has hardened sufficiently to make 
such procedure safe. Freezing should not be 
mistaken for naturally hardened concrete. 

The precautions necessary for concrete work 
in cold weather are outlined on pages 178 to 
180, and before proceeding with the construc- 
tion, these pages should be studied carefully. 

Pages 172 and 173 contain useful information 
on the placing of concrete, and by adhering to 



142 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




A pair of silos, block or monolithic, make a good team to pull your livestock business 
profitably through four seasons 



these suggestions the concrete silo will not 
alone be serviceable, but its appearance will be 
improved. 

Final appearance of a silo depends princi- 
pally upon the care with which forms are set, 
plumbed, and raised, and the careful spading 
done when the concrete is placed in the 
forms. Not only should spading be done 
thoroughly between forms to eliminate aggre- 
gate pockets giving maximum density, but 
it should also be thoroughly worked around 
reinforcement so as to embed it and give a 
complete bond. Thorough spading will help 
materially to make the structure watertight 
and to produce smooth interior and exterior 
surfaces. 

Surface Finish 

While not necessary to do so, the exterior of 
the silo can be given a uniformly even appear- 
ance by applying a coat of cement and water 
paint after concreting has been completed. 
The same applies to the interior wall face, and 
such a wash will contribute to sealing pores or 
irregularities in the surface. 

Fireproofness is not secured in the fullest 
measure unless the structure is finished with a 
concrete roof. See tables on pages 106 and 107, 
and detailed drawing on page 139. 

Considerable space has been devoted to the 
description of the monolithic silo because 
many details of its construction apply to 



block and concrete stave silos. Foundation 
requirements for all three types are the same, 
and other features, such as doorway openings, 
chutes, proper location of structure, etc., apply 
to all types. 

Block Silos 

Block silos, as the name implies, are built 
of concrete block similar to those used in other 
concrete block construction, except that the 
block are molded in special machines to give 
them a form corresponding to part of the cir- 
cumference of a circle. When laid in courses, 
they thus produce a circular structure of the 
height and diameter desired. 

Details of block making, given on pages 77 
and 78, apply to the making of silo block. Such 
block can be home made if the intending 
builder cares to go to the expense of securing 
one of the machines used for the purpose. If 
not, the block may be purchased from a prod- 
ucts plant. Some little skill is required to 
make concrete block, and this is not likely to 
be possessed by the novice or casual worker. 
Proper curing of the block is best accomplished 
in steam curing chambers which the home 
worker in concrete cannot provide. 

The average home builder is unskilled at 
masonry work. The laying up of a concrete 
block silo is essentially a masonry job, and it 
involves, among other things, well-bedded mor- 
tar joints in order that the finished structure 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



143 




^•Mortar joints 
& inches apart. 



f No. 3 wires 
I above this 
line. 



^■inch round 
rods below 
this line. 



Chart showing reinforcing required at each joint of concrete block silos 



shall have the required watertightness and 
leakproof qualities necessary. It is better to 
engage a local contractor to do the work. 

Reinforcement of Block Silos 

Block silos must be reinforced. Horizon- 
tal hoops in the form of round rods are em- 
bedded partly in the mortar joints and partly 
in grooves cast when the block is made. 
Usually a ^4-inch rod or No. 3 wire is used as 
reinforcement. A chart table on this page 



shows the quantity of this reinforcement that is 
necessary for the various dimensions of block 
silos. 

Intermittent doors with concrete door- 
frames are generally preferred for block silos. 
The interior of the block silo may be given a 
coat of cement grout, like that used on the 
monolithic silo, and the roof and chute may be 
built in about the same manner, except that 
the chute is of concrete block, while the roof 
is of monolithic construction. 



144 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




A concrete stave silo, like the block and monolithic structures, is vpindproof, 
rotproof, and fireproof 



The details of the forms necessary for the 
construction of a roof for either a block or a 
monolithic silo are found on page 139. 

Stave Silos 

Both monolithic and concrete block silos 
meet all requirements of the ideal silo, but 
these requirements are also met by the concrete 
stave silo, which has for a number of years 
been increasing rapidly in popular favor, due 
largely to the expansion of the concrete prod- 
ucts industry and the ease with which the 
concrete staves may be obtained in practically 
any part of the country from one of these 
products plants. 

The concrete stave is a slab of concrete, 
generally from 2}{ to 3 inches thick, 10 to 12 
inches wide, and from 28 to 30 inches long, the 
variation in the foregoing dimensions meaning 
that the many types of concrete staves vary 
slightly in main dimensions. When used to lay 
up the wall, the staves are set on end and their 
edges interlock in different ways, depending 
upon the particular type of stave. In the main, 
differences are slight and of no importance be- 
cause all types of concrete staves produce a 
first-class silo. 

An advantage of the concrete stave silo 
which has been responsible for its rapid in- 
crease in popularity in the last two or more 
years is the fact that it can be very quickly 
erected. Speed of construction is necessarily 
limited on monolithic silos because forms can 



be raised only once in twenty-four hours. 
An average sized concrete stave silo is usually 
completed in three days. 

There are a variety of staves used in concrete 
stave silo construction which enable the per- 
son who prefers this type of silo to have some 
range of choice as to type of stave or other 
detail. With concrete staves there is an un- 
limited latitude as to diameter and height of 
finished silo. Enclosure walls, troughs, corn- 
cribs and other barnyard equipment are also 
built of concrete staves. 

Reinforcement of Stave Silos 

The concrete stave silo, like the block and 
monolithic structures, is windproof, rotproof, 
and fireproof, and possesses a degree of perma- 
nence found only in concrete construction. 
The principal difference between concrete stave 
silos and the other types of concrete silos lies 
in the manner in which reinforcement is ap- 
plied. In the monolithic and block silos re- 
inforcement is embedded in the concrete. In 
the concrete stave silo it takes the form of hoops 
placed at suitable intervals on the outside and 
tightened by means of turnbuckles. 

Concrete stave silos are sometimes equipped 
with chutes built of the same kind of staves. 
Usually they have a galvanized metal roof. 

As in the case of monolithic and block silos, 
it is not recommended that the inexperienced 
man erect his own concrete stave silo, but 
rather engage a contractor to do it for him. 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



145 




A feature of many circular concrete barns is to have the silo in the center 



Concrete Barns 



CONSIDERABLE choice may be exercised 
in the floor plan arrangement of a barn. 
Stock may face in or face out — either arrange- 
ment is practical. 

If the structure is a general purpose barn in 
which the lower floor is used to house horses 
and other live stock, as well as dairy cattle, 
the dairy stock quarters must be completely 
separated from those of the other animals so 
that no objectionable odors will contaminate 
the milk. Windows in a dairy barn should be 
screened to keep out flies. Foundation and 
wall requirements for barns have been outlined 
on pages 57 to 62. No two farmers' barn re- 
quirements are the same, so standard plans are 
impracticable. 

Both dairy and general purpose barns of the 
circular type have been increasing in popular- 
ity of late years. There are many examples 
of such structures throughout the country, a 
large number of which have been built of con- 
crete block. A feature of many circular barns 
is to have the concrete silo in the center. This 
is ideal with respect to ease of feeding. Silos 
are illustrated on pages 42 to 45 and pages 
136 to 144. 

Length of cow-stalls usually depends upon 
the breed of stock. Guernseys and Jerseys are 
comfortably provided for in stalls four and a 



half feet long. Holsteins and large breeds require 
stalls at least five fee t long. A drawing on page 67 
shows vertical cross-section of a standard dairy 
barn floor, which includes feeding passageway, 
manger, stall, cleaning gutter, and driveway. 
This sketch represents half of the section 
through a barn in which the cattle face out. 

Floors should have a slope about one inch 
between the foot and head of the cattle, so that 
all liquids will flow into the manure gutter and 
so that the floor can be quickly flushed and 
drained. 

Gutters are made from 16 to 18 inches wide, 
so they can readily be cleaned with an ordinary 
shovel. Gutters should slope He inch per foot 
for drainage, and are usually connected with 
a tile line so that all liquids may drain into a 
concrete manure pit. Concrete manure pits 
with designs and drawings are shown on pages 
74 and 75. 

Concrete mangers are usually made con- 
tinuous, with a drain at one end for cleaning 
and flushing. Feed alleys should be built wide 
enough to make feeding operations easy and 
convenient. 

Details of construction for placing of con- 
crete with respect to installation are available 
from manufacturers of standard dairy barn 
equipment. 



146 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



Silo chute extended 
to act as ventilator 




3-T"loor 



Hay Loft 



Hay Loff 




Pj.*m First Floor 



Barns built entirely of concrete are quite 
common in many parts of the country. Both 
monolithic and block type of construction are 
practical. 

Where the investment for an all-concrete 
barn is prohibitive, many farmers have built 
the footings, walls, and the first floors of con- 



crete, replacing from time to time the different 
units of the wooden superstructure until they 
have attained the complete building of con- 
crete, requiring no replacement and the mini- 
mum of maintenance. For absolute protec- 
tion the roof as well as the walls and floors 
should be of fire-resistive materials. 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



147 




SxcTioii B-B 



m 

SECTIOH OC 



The designs shown of a monolithic concrete barn actually built by a farm-owner and his 
labor in central Illinois. All of the work was done during spare hours, and for that reason 
construction of the barn extended over a period of three years. The actual enclosure walls, 
however, were quickly completed and a portion of the barn made available for use, while the 
remainder was finished at leisure. This barn shows a feature common to the most successful 
circular barns in that the silo is at the center of the structure, thus making feeding of stock 
convenient. Notice that a water tank is built on top of the silo. No design details of rein- 
forcing are shown. These have to be calculated for every structure of this kind, depending 

upon its size 



REFERENCES FOR CONSTRUCTION 



PAGES 

Foundations and walls 9, 57 to 62 

Walks 10, 64 to 68 

Steps 12, 13, 69 

Illustrations of barns 27 to 31 

Barn approaches 32, 70 

Manure pits 32, 33, 74, 75 

Concrete in the barn 34, 35 



PAGES 

Dairy houses 38, 108 to 111 

Watering troughs 41, 93 to 96 



Silos 

Building out rats 

Barn riser 

Roofs 

Part Three 



42 to 45, 136 to 144 

63 

71 

106, 107 

153 to 185 



148 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




A modern coal pocket 



Coal and Material Bins 



BECAUSE of the permanence of concrete 
for the mechanical handling of coal, sand, 
crushed stone, and other materials stored in 
bins or "pockets," concrete bins have largely 
replaced other types. Spread out in the usual 
fashion, a retail material dealer's yard occupies 
much valuable ground space. "Building the 
yard up in the air," so to speak, by using con- 
crete pockets, less yard space is necessary and 
at the same time added profits to the busi- 
ness result through elimination of much hand 
labor. 

A modern concrete pocket is equipped with 
machinery that does the work of handling at 
a fraction of time and expense involved with 



old methods. In addition it provides fullest 
protection against fire and depreciation. 

One of the popular forms of material bins 
is circular, which is practically a counterpart 
of the monolithic, concrete block, or concrete 
stave silo — for coal pockets and material stor- 
age bins are built by using concrete in all three 
of the forms mentioned. Each pocket must 
be designed in accordance with the capacity 
to be provided. The general construction re- 
quirements for circular structures of this kind 
are the same as those governing the construc- 
tion of concrete silos on pages 136 to 144. 

Tables on the following page show capacities 
of pockets of various dimensions. 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 


149 


CAPACITIES OF CIRCULAR POCKETS IN TONS OF BITUMINOUS COAL* 



Height of Coal Pocket 


Inside Diameter of Coal Pocket 


12 Feet 


14 Feet 


16 Feet 


IS Feet 


30 feet 


85 

113 

141 
170 


115 

154 
192 
231 


151 

201 
251 
302 


191 


40 feet 


255 


50 feet 


318 


60 feet 


382 







For anthracite coal add 10 per cent to above capacities. 



Concrete pockets can be reinforced either 
with round or square bars. Accompanying 
tables show reinforcement required and ex- 
amples of use for circular bins for both round 



rods and square bars. These tables are figured 
for structures ranging in diameter from 12 feet 
to 18 feet by variations in diameter of 2 feet 
in each instance. 



TABLE SHOWING HORIZONTAL STEEL REINFORCING IN 
CIRCULAR BINS 

This Table is for Round Rods 













Top in Feet 


12 Ft. Diam. 


14 Ft. Diam. 


16 Ft. Diam. 


18 Ft. Diam. 


0-10 


%"-12" ctrs. 


3/g"-12" ctrs. 


%"-10" ctrs. 


3^"-8" ctrs. 


10-20 


%'- 8" " 


Vs"- 8" " 


%'- 8" " 


3f'-6" " 


20-30 


%'- 8" " 


H'- 8" " 


y 8 "- 6" " 


%"-6" " 


30-40 


%"- 8" " 


y 8 "- 8" " 


y 8 "- 6" " 


y 8 "-6" " 


40-50 


y 8 "- 6" " 


y/~ 6" " 


y 8 "- 6" " 


y 8 "-6" " 


50-60 


%'- 6" " 


W- 6" " 


K"- 8" " 


y 2 "-8" " 


60-70 


%"- 6" " 


%'- 6" " 


y 2 "- 8" " 


y 2 "-w " 


70-80 


y 8 "- 6" - 


y 8 "~ 6" " 


K"- 8" " 


y 2 "-s" " 



Note. — %"— 6" ctrs. indicates that z /%" round rods are spaced 6" center to center be- 
tween the ten-foot sections as indicated. 

Note. — Vertical reinforcement >:>"-24" ctrs. or Ys"-\2" ctrs.. regardless of size of bin. 

Problem. — Let it be assumed that it is desired to determine the size and reinforcing 
for a coal pocket of the silo type having a capacity of 200 tons. From table of capaci- 
ties we note a silo 16 ft. in diameter and 40 ft. high will be required. From above 
table of reinforcing a silo 40 ft. high and 16 ft. in diameter requires horizontal reinforcing 
as follows: %" round rods 10" ctrs. in top 10 ft.; Y%" round rods 8" ctrs. in second 10 ft.; 
%" round rods 6" ctrs. in lower 20 ft. 

For vertical reinforcing Jg" round rods 12" ctrs. will be required. 



TABLE SHOWING HORIZONTAL STEEL REINFORCING IN 
CIRCULAR BINS 

This Table is for Square Bars 



Distance from 
Top in Feet 


12 Ft. Diam. 


14 Ft. Diam. 


16 Ft. Diam. 


18 Ft. Diam. 


0-10 


%"-16" ctrs. 


y 8 "-16" Ctrs. 


%"-13" ctrs. 


%"-10" ctrs. 


10-20 


3/ 8 "-10" " 


y 8 "-io" " 


^"-10" " 


y 8 "- 8" " 


20-30 


3^"-10" » 


y 8 "-io" " 


y 8 "- 8" " 


y 8 "- 8" " 


30-40 


3--10" " 


y 8 "-io" " 


y/- 8" " 


y 8 "- 8" " 


40-50 


%"- 8" " 


y 8 "- 8" " 


y 8 "- 8" " 


y 8 "- 8" " 


50-60 


y 8 "- 8" " 


y 8 "- 8" " 


K"-10" " 


K"-io" " 


60-70 


y 8 "- 8" " 


y 8 "- 8" " 


K"-io" " 


K"-io" " 


70-80 


y 8 "- 8" " 


y s "- 8" " 


y 2 "-\Q" " 


y 2 "-io" " 



Note. — %"-W ctrs. indicates %" square bars spaced 10" center to center between 
the 10-foot sections as indicated. 

Note. — Vertical reinforcement Ji>" square bars-24" ctrs. or %" square bars-16" 
ctrs., regardless of size of bin. 

Problem. — Let it be assumed that it is desired to determine the size and reinforcing 
for a coal pocket of the silo type having a capacity of 200 tons. The table of capacities 
shows that a silo 16 ft. in diameter and 40 ft. high will be required. From above table 
of reinforcing a silo 40 ft. high and 16 ft. diameter requires horizontal reinforcing as 
follows: %" square bars 13" ctrs. in top 10 ft.; y s " square bars 10" ctrs. in second 
10 ft.; JHs" square bars 8" ctrs. in lower 20 ft. 

For vertical reinforcing %" square bars 16" ctrs. will be required. 



150 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




A serviceable, inexpensive box culvert 



Culverts and Bridges 



THE simplest form of concrete culvert is one 
made of precast concrete pipe, similar to 
large drain tile or sewer pipe. Pipe is adapted 
to culvert construction in all sizes of openings 
from twelve inches upward to the largest size 
of pipe made, providing the largest size will 
otherwise suit requirements of the location. 
Good practice limits the minimum size of 
waterway openings to twelve inches, because 
smaller openings are too easily closed with 
debris and in that way rendered ineffective 
unless constant attention is given to keep 
them open. 

The box culvert is more generally used than 
other types except precast pipe, because very 
simple forms are required and the concrete 



work is easily done. A box culvert is merely 
a long box with concrete top, sides, and bot- 
tom — in effect, a small concrete bridge with 
top slab acting as the floor to support the load 
of traffic. The slab must be reinforced with 
steel rods or heavy mesh fabric. A floor 
should be laid at the bottom of box culverts in 
order to prevent wash and scour of streams 
from undermining the sides and causing the 
culvert to settle and probably break. 

The arch culvert is different from the box 
culvert in that its top is in the form of an arch 
instead of flat slab. Small arch culverts do not 
require reinforcement, but large arches are 
sometimes designed for reinforcement in order 
to economize in the use of concrete. Forms 




Commercial forms for building culverts. These forms are collapsible, making them easy 

to remove 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



151 




width of roadviny 
Longitudinal Section 



Cross-Section 



Concrete 



box culvert with wing walls. The following calculations show how computations were made in order to determine 
total quantity of materials required on the basis of each foct of roadway width. Total reinforcement 
in the computations is on the basis of 20 feet length of culvert 



BOX 

Bottom 

Sides 

Top 



HIGHWAY CULVERT 
1:2:4 Mix 



= .5 
= .5 
= .6 



WINGS 

Base 
Footing 
Wing walls 



X 1 X 5 =2.5 cu. ft. 

X 1 X 3 X 2 = 3.0 cu. ft. 
X 1 X 4 = jL4 cu. ft. 

7.9 cu. ft. or .29 cu. yd. 

per foot width of road 



= 5.00 X 5.5 X 4.33 X 2 = 23.8 cu 
= .83 X 2.0 X 9.00 X 2 
= .66 v 2.4 X 2.16 X 4 



Parapet walls = 4 cu. ft. 



ft. 
29.9 cu. ft. 
13.6 cu. ft. 
oTj cu. ft. 
4.0 
71.3 cu. ft. 
2.6cu.yds. 



box Material Required 

Per foot width of roadway (as needed) 
Lehigh cement = .44 bbl. 
Sand = .13 cu. yd. 

Pebbles = .26 cu. yd. 

WING ENDS (2) 

Lehigh cement = 3.9 bbls. 
Sand = 1.2 cu. yds. 

Pebbles = 2.4 cu. yds. 

for arches are more difficult to build, and 
more expensive than for simple box culverts. 

When installing concrete pipe culverts, the 
pipe is laid in a carefully prepared trench 
properly curved at the bottom, so that every- 
where the pipe will have a uniform support as 
bedded. The manufacture of concrete pipe 
has been discussed on pages 76 to 83, to which 
the reader is referred for other details. 

The side walls of small box and arch cul- 
verts in firm soil usually provide sufficient 
foundation bearing. In soft or doubtful soils a 
spread footing should be placed under the side 
walls. All flat slab or box culverts, regardless 
of size, should be reinforced. Usually such 



Reinforcement 

Assume Twenty-foot Roadway as example 
TOP OF BOX 

Transverse bars SY 2 " o.c. 

29 %" □ bars X 3' 10" = 112 feet 

Longitudinal bars 

2 Y 2 " □ bars X 19' 10" = 40 feet 

BOTTOM OF BOX 

Transverse bars @ 10" o.c. 

25 %" □ bars X 4' 0" = 100 feet 

Longitudinal bars 

2 Y% □ bars X 19' 10" = 40 feet 

SIDES OF BOX 

Vertical bars 

21 Yi' □ bars X 3' 6" = 74 feet 

148 feet for both sides 

Horizontal bars 

2 Y 2 " □ bars X 19' 10" = 40 feet 

80 feet for both sides 

SUMMARY OF STEEL 

%" □ bars 212 feet @ 1.33 = 282 lbs. 
Yz" □ bars 308 feet @ .85 = 262 lbs. 

Total = 544 lbs. of reinforce- 
ment steel 

reinforcing is placed with its center point 
about \yi inches from the bottom of the top 
slab, and in the case of the floor slab, \yi 
inches from its top, because the floor slab re- 
ceives pressure from beneath acting upward. 
Wing walls on bridges and culverts hold 
back the road fill and prevent the stream from 
washing a channel through the road fill. Wing 
walls used with concrete pipe culverts are 
generally built straight and parallel with the 
road. End and wing walls for box or arch cul- 
verts are either straight and parallel with the 
road, or flared at an angle to it. The flared 
type is more effective in confining the road 
fill. Especially should these be used on the 



152 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




Method of placing reinforcing in small culvert or bridge, showing lateral and longitudinal reinforcing 



up-stream end of the culvert. Frequently end 
and wing walls are reinforced in order to 
economize on concrete. 

Road covering over all culverts should be at 
least two feet unless the road surface is con- 
crete pavement. If less than two feet of earth 
is used as a covering for a culvert where the 
highway material is merely earth, gravel, or 
macadam, there is danger that the impact of 
traffic will not be sufficiently cushioned to 
prevent damage to the culvert. Instead of 
letting the concrete highway pavement serve 
as the top, the culvert should be low enough 
so that, in addition to its own top slab, the 
additional thickness of the concrete road slab 



will be laid on top of it. In such case the top 
slab of the culvert should be painted with 
something like asphalt to allow free movement 
of the road slab, due to volume changes under 
different temperature conditions. 

Concrete culverts should be made the full 
width of the road, including shoulders. 

Most of the remarks just made about con- 
crete culverts apply to concrete bridges. A 
bridge implies a larger structure, although no 
definite line is drawn that would indicate 
where the structure changes from the classifi- 
cation of culvert to that of bridge. In building 
a bridge the services of an engineer or a con- 
tractor will be required. 




Concrete pipe culvert with wing walls 



PART THREE 



153 



THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES 
of CONCRETE 



THE adaptability of concrete is due to its 
being plastic in its first stage of use. Im- 
mediately after mixing it is a wet mass that 
can be placed in forms or molds, where it will 
harden in any shape or form intended. The 
result is in reality a manufactured stone, and 
depending upon how the ingredients of con- 
crete are selected, mixed, and manipulated, 
almost any variety of natural stone can be 
equaled or surpassed. As used in building con- 
struction, concrete is superior to natural stone 
because it is always under control. 

Concrete is a product resulting from proper 
mixture of cement, sand, stone, and water. 

Concrete may be used for either monolithic 
or unit construction. 

Simple fundamentals must be observed in 
doing any kind of concrete work and they are 
of utmost importance. Neglect of any one or 
several of them, in spite of their seeming in- 
significance, may be the underlying cause of 
failure or dissatisfaction. 

Lehigh portland cement is a scientifically 
prepared commodity which hardens upon the 
addition of water. In concrete, cement acts 
as a mineral glue, binding firmly together the 
sand, gravel, and stone used in the mixture. 

Selection of Materials 

The materials that enter into a concrete 
mixture must be selected with great care. 

The selection of Lehigh cement insures a 
standardized, dependable product. 

Sand, gravel, and stone are quite variable. 
Sand is frequently dirty, due to the presence 
of one or more foreign materials, such as silt 
or organic matter. Rotted vegetable material 
may be present in such a fine form as to be 
difficult to detect; or considerable clay may be 
in the sand. The sand may be too fine instead 
of uniformly well graded from the coarser to 
the finer particles. 

Practically the same impurities may be 
found in gravels or crushed stone, particularly 
in gravels. The pebbles may be coated with 
clay or other firmly adherent foreign material 



which will prevent the cement from perform- 
ing its intended function of binding the con- 
crete firmly together as a mass. 

Broken stone that is prepared particularly 
for use in concrete is not likely to have so many 
objectionable features as may be found in 
natural gravel. It may contain an excess of 
dust, which is objectionable for the same rea- 
sons that foreign material is objectionable in 
sand and gravel, that is, the dust prevents the 
cement from performing its bonding properties. 

Therefore, one of the fundamentals govern- 
ing the selection of materials to be used in a 
concrete mixture is that these materials shall 
be clean. 

Definition of Aggregates 

The sand and pebbles or crushed stone used 
in making concrete are commonly referred to 
as aggregates. Sand, or material used in place 
of sand, such as stone screenings, is referred to 
as fine aggregate, while pebbles, usually and 
improperly referred to as gravel, and crushed 
stone are known as coarse aggregates. 

Coarse aggregates may be pebbles obtained 
from screening bank-run gravel or may be ob- 
tained by crushing natural rock to a suitable 
size, or from crushed slag or hard cinders. 

An arbitrary line is drawn to distinguish 
between fine aggregate and coarse aggregate. 
All material that will pass a sieve having 
_^-inch meshes is known as sand or fine aggre- 
gate. All material which will not pass such 
a screen and ranges in size up to the largest 
permissible particles usable in ordinary con- 
crete mixtures, is called coarse aggregate. In 
the average run of concrete work coarse ag- 
gregate used seldom exceeds \}4 or \y^ inches 
in greatest dimension, and ranges from that 
size downward to practically % inch. 

Both sand and coarse aggregate should con- 
sist of volumes in which the particles are well 
graded from coarse to fine. An excess of 
either coarse or fine particles or any consider- 
able deficiency in range of grading makes the 
material uneconomical because of the added 



154 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 






Illustrating the voids in aggregates 



quantity of cement required to fill voids or 
air spaces in the bulk. 

The following example is illustrated by the 
drawings at the top of this page. 

Suppose we have a box of exactly one 
cubic foot capacity when level full. We start 
to fill this box first by putting into it as many 
pieces of crushed stone or pebbles as it will 
contain, say, uniformly 1>2 inches in greatest 
dimension. No matter how carefully this 
volume of material, which in bulk measures 
one cubic foot, is shaken or settled into place 
in the box there will still be a large volume of 
unfilled space in our cubic foot of bulk be- 
cause the particles uniformly \}4 inches in 
size will not fit together so closely as to make 
literally a solid mass. We can begin to take 
up some of this space by adding a certain vol- 
ume of smaller pebbles or pieces of crushed 
stone, say }4 or ^ inch in diameter. By 
mixing these thoroughly with the one cubic 
foot of the larger particles we will find that these 
combined volumes of coarse and finer particles 
will still all go into our cubic foot box — and 
there are still unfilled spaces between particles 
in the box. Then we can take some sand 
graded from X inch down to fine particles and 
can mix a considerable volume of this with the 
material already in the box and again the box 
will hold all of this mixture. Still there are 
unfilled spaces; and it will be found that a con- 
siderable volume of cement can be added to 
the three lots of material we have already 
placed in the box and the box will hold all of 
such mixture. 

Mixtures Should Be Graded 

This should clearly illustrate the principle 
and necessity of grading mixtures to produce a 
dense mass, for a large portion of the strength 
of concrete depends upon its density, that is, 
the absence of air spaces or unfilled spaces 
commonly called voids. It is essentially on 



the principle just illustrated that concrete is 
proportioned, bearing in mind that the mix- 
ture which we have just been discussing still 
lacks the water necessary to finish the opera- 
tion and make a concrete mixture. 

Other fundamental requirements govern the 
quality of concrete. In addition to having 
clean materials well graded, the sand and 
pebbles or broken stone used should possess 
hardness. 

In many cases they should be chosen with 
regard particularly for their fire-resistive quali- 
ties as individual materials. 

Fire-Resistive Aggregates 

Lehigh cement in the process of manufac- 
ture is exposed to very high heat, and there- 
fore is inherently highly fire resistive. 

Some stones and rocks found in nature are 
of volcanic origin. Traprock is an example. 
Aggregate obtained by crushing these volcanic 
rocks is particularly valuable for concrete mix- 
tures intended for use in building construction 
that has to be highly fire resistive. It is be- 
cause blast furnace slag has also been exposed 
to high heat that slag aggregate is used where 
high fire resistance of concrete is desired or 
necessary. 

When considering materials to be used in 
concrete, hardness and toughness have differ- 
ent meanings. A hard material may be brit- 
tle. It may be tough as well as hard, and is 
therefore not particularly brittle. Toughness 
is a quality very much desired in concrete 
aggregates used in such construction as roads, 
streets, or other pavements that are to be sub- 
jected to traffic abrasion and impact. 

There is a great variety of natural rock that 
can be crushed and used as concrete aggregate. 
Various natural rocks have different degrees 
of hardness, toughness, and fire resistance, 
and the physical properties of the aggregate 
being used should be known in order to be 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



155 



sure that it is best adapted to the concrete 
in which it enters. Granite, while hard and 
quite tough, is not the best aggregate for high 
fire resistance. Traprock and slag have this 
important quality. Sandstone, and other nat- 
ural rocks like it, should not be used where 
toughness and great strength are required, al- 
though it is suitable for many classes of con- 
crete work. 

A small quantity of organic impurity in 
aggregates makes them unfit for use unless 
such foreign material is removed. This 
usually is done by washing. It is, therefore, 
important to test sand to see whether such 
foreign material is present. The coating of 
vegetable matter on sand grains may not only 
prevent the cement from hardening and keep 
it from performing its bonding function, but 
may affect it chemically. Frequently the quan- 
tity of foreign material present is so small 
that it cannot be detected by the eye, yet may 
prevent the concrete from ever reaching 
any appreciable strength. 

The Colorimetric Sand Test 

The following is a simple test to determine 
the presence of an objectionable quantity of 
organic matter in sand. This is known as 
the colorimetric test, and was developed by 
the Structural Materials Research Laboratory 
of Chicago: 

Obtain a 12-ounce graduated bottle and fill 
to the 4^-ounce mark with the sand to be 
tested. Add to this a 3 per cent, solution of 
caustic soda, until the combined volume of 
sand and solution after shaking amounts to 7 
ounces. 

Let this stand for twenty-four hours. At 
the end of this time observe the color of the 
liquid above the sand. If the solution is color- 
less or nearly so, — that is, has but a pale yel- 
lowish color, — the sand may be considered 
sufficiently free from organic impurities for 
any use. A brownish yellow solution, or one 
darker than a pale straw, indicates a sand 
which should not be used in important con- 
crete work, such as that required in roads and 
pavements or in reinforced concrete building 
construction. If, in general, the color is 
brownish throughout, the sand should not be 
used in anything but unimportant work, such 
as footings or foundations that are not to 
carry heavy loads. A dark brown solution 



shows a sand which should not be used and 
should be rejected. 

This test furnishes a simple and inexpensive 
method of detecting the presence of such or- 
ganic impurities as humus. The test is used 
by a large number of laboratories, engineers, 
and contractors in passing on the suitability 
of sand for use in concrete. 

If this test proves the sand objectionable, 
then it must either be discarded or in some 
way washed to remove the foreign material. 

4"X VSide 



, . 


' 








Tr>r\cS}\e<1 nnrt Grnnvprj . 




4<r 


Bottom Boards 


















6 10'0" lb \5V" > 








-Braces - 
"XV Foot Board 




Washing platform 

Simple devices for washing can easily be 
made. One of these consists of a wooden trough 
or sluiceway elevated at one end at such an 
angle with the horizontal that the materials to 
be washed will, when thrown in at the upper 
end of the trough and forced down through its 
length, be so agitated or tossed about by run- 
ning water, kept playing in the upper end of 
the trough, as to free the particles from ob- 
jectionable material. Pebbles and screenings 
from crushed stone can be washed in a similar 
manner. 

The reader has probably observed that sev- 
eral times the word "pebbles" has been used 
in speaking of coarse aggregate. This makes 
it necessary to call attention to the bad prac- 
tice often followed by many concrete workers 
in taking the natural run of material as it 
comes from a gravel bank and using it with 
cement and water for a concrete mixture. The 
objection to this is that no gravel bank runs 
uniform with respect to the contained vol- 
umes of sand and coarse aggregate as already 
defined. Practically every gravel bank con- 
tains more sand than coarse aggregate, usually 



156 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



twice as much, and if the unscreened material 
is used, the amount of cement required with 
a given volume of such material would be 
considerably in excess of an economical quan- 
tity to produce required strength if screened 
and graded materials had been used. It is, 
therefore, profitable as well as necessary to 
screen bank-run gravel into two volumes, so 
that the sand which passes through the ^-inch 
mesh screen can be properly reproportioned 
with the coarser particles or pebbles. 

Since many gravel banks contain a consider- 
able volume of pebbles in excess of \}4 inches 
in diameter, it may be necessary to again screen 
the mass rejected by the ^-inch screen so that 
the coarse aggregate will have the grading re- 
quired. 

In laboratory experiments concrete mix- 
tures are usually made with every considera- 
tion for the refinements of proportioning and 
mixing just detailed. In the field, however, 
these requirements are not always practicable, 
so they are approached as nearly as possible 
by careful observance of the fundamentals al- 
ready given and by sufficient experimenting 
to determine an arbitrary mixture for various 
classes of work, such mixtures being then 
adhered to throughout particular pieces of 
construction or portions thereof. 

Sizes of Aggregates 

With proper selection in grading of materi- 
als and correct proportions of all ingredients 
we can approach an ideal mixture even in 
general practice, but to do this some other 
fundamentals in addition to those already men- 
tioned must be observed. 

An excess of very fine particles in the sand 
is to be avoided although it is necessary that 
considerable fine material be present in order 
to reduce voids. Any quantity greatly in ex 
cess over that required for this purpose has a 
tendency to diminish the strength of the con- 
crete. 

Within reasonable limits the strength of the 
concrete increases with the size of the aggre- 
gates. In thin reinforced sections, in fact, in 
the general run of concrete work, the maxi- 
mum size of coarse aggregate should not ex- 
ceed \y^ inches. Sometimes the maximum 
limit is one inch because of the nature of the 
work. In mass concrete, such as heavy foun- 
dations and very thick walls or thick floors 



without reinforcement, the size of coarse aggre- 
gate may often range up to 2^ or 3 inches. 

The shape of aggregate particles, particu- 
larly as applies to coarse aggregate, influences 
the strength of the concrete. Flat, elongated 
particles pack loosely and generally are infer- 
ior to those more nearly cubical or round or egg 
shaped. 

Perfect spheres of equal size, piled in the 
most compact manner, will leave theoretically 
about 26 per cent, of voids, so we can see how 
necessary it is that large particles of aggregate 
predominate to reduce voids to the lowest pos- 
sible limit preliminary to incorporating the re- 
quired amount of cement and fine aggregate 
in any chosen mixture. 

Concrete Mixtures 

Definite specified mixtures should not be 
varied without knowledge of the results that 
may follow. For example, concrete mixtures 
are usually referred to as 1:2:3 or 1: 2^:5 or 
1:3:6, etc. These three figures have a definite 
meaning. They indicate volumes of the three 
basic materials of a concrete mixture. The 
first figure in each case means the quantity of 
cement used — in other words, "1" stands for 
one part of cement. The "2" stands for two 
parts of sand or other fine aggregate. The 
"3" stands for three parts of pebbles, broken 
stone, or whatever coarse aggregate is being 
used. 

To attempt to alter these mixtures by taking 
the one part of cement and considering that 
the two parts sand and three parts coarse 
aggregate are the same as five parts of coarse 
aggregate is a common and serious mistake. 
It is the mistake always made by those who 
think the use of unscreened bank-run gravel 
in a certain volume as taken from the pit 
is just the same as the two volumes of mater- 
ials separately prepared and afterward com- 
bined. For example, a 1:2:4 mixture, which 
consists, as we have just explained, of one vol- 
ume of cement, two similar volumes of sand, 
and four similar volumes of coarse aggregate, 
a total of seven cubic feet of the three ingredi- 
ents measured separately, but it will not produce 
seven cubic feet of concrete. On the contrary, 
because of the voids existing in the sand and 
coarse aggregate, no matter how nicely we 
have tried to grade them, the three bulks of 
materials when combined with water into a 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



157 



concrete mixture will total in the neighbor- 
hood of 4} 2 cubic feet of concrete in place. 
This should make it evident that any attempt 
to depart from recommended mixtures pre- 
pared in accordance with the fundamentals 
already outlined will produce a weaker con- 
crete than the user expected. 









One barrel of Lehigh cement = Four sacks 

Lehigh cement is packed in paper and duck 
sacks, although sold by the barrel. Four sacks 
make a barrel. A sack of Lehigh cement weighs 



94 pounds net, and for all practical purposes 
is considered as equal in volume to one cubic 
foot. Therefore, in writing or speaking of 
cement mixtures, such as 1:2:3, 1:2^:4, or 
similar ones, it is convenient to think of the 
various ingredients as volumes of so many 
cubic feet. The cement (one sack) is one cubic 
foot and the proportions are secured by the 
same volume measurement of fine and coarse 
aggregates. 

Mixtures written as 1 : 1^, 1:2, or 1:3 
refer to mortars. In other words, they are 
mixtures consisting only of cement, sand and 
water. 1:2:3 means 1 cubic foot or 1 sack, of 
cement, 2 cubic feet of sand, and 3 cubic feet 
of coarse aggregate. 

The following table lists some arbitrary 
mixtures which, from experience, have proved 
particularly suited for the various classes of 
work named, providing the principles of select- 
ing and proportioning materials already out- 
lined have been carefully observed: 



TABLE OF RECOMMENDED MIXTURES AND MAXIMUM 

AGGREGATE SIZES 

Concrete 



Size of 
Aggregate 

: 1 : 1 Mixture for in In ches 

The wearing course of two-course floors sub- 
ject to heavy trucking, such as occurs in 
factories, warehouses, on loading platforms, 
etc K 

:l:iy 2 Mixture for 

The wearing course of two-course pavements }4 

: 2: 3 Mixture for 

Reinforced concrete roof slabs 1 

One-course concrete road, street, and alley 

pavements 3 

One-course walks and barnyard pavements. . 1>2 

One-course concrete floors l}4 

Fence posts Y 

Sills and lintels without mortar surface }4 

Watering troughs and tanks 1 

Reinforced concrete columns 1 

Mine timbers H 

Construction subjected to water pressure, 
such as reservoirs, swimming pools, storage 
tanks, cisterns, elevator pits, vats, etc 1 

: 2 : 4 Mixture for 

Reinforced concrete walls, floors, beams, col- 
umns, and other concrete members designed 
in combination with steel reinforcing 1 

Concrete for the arch ring of arch bridges and 
culverts ". . '. 1/^ 

Foundations for engines subjected to heavy 
loading, impact, and vibration 3 



Size of 
Aggregate 
in Inches 



Concrete work subject to vibration 1}4 

Reinforced concrete sewer pipe }4 

: 2y 2 : 4 Mixture for 

Silo walls, grain-bins, coal-bins, elevators, and 
similar structures \yi 

Building walls above foundation, when stucco 
finish will not be applied \ l A 

Walls of pits or basements exposed to mois- 
ture \yi 

Manure pits 1 Yi 

Dipping vats, hog wallows 1 

Backing of concrete block $i 

Base of two-course road, street, and alley 
pavements 3 



Walls above ground which are to have stucco 
finish 1 } ■. 

Base of two-course walks, feeding floors, 
pavements, and floors 1J; 

Bridge abutments and wing walls, culverts, 
dams, small retaining walls 2 

Basement walls and foundations where water- 
tightness is not essential 2 

Foundations for small engines 2 

: 3: 6 Mixture for 

Mass concrete — large retaining walls, heavy 
foundations and footings 3 



158 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



Mortars 

In making Portland cement mortar, masons find it de- quantity of hydrated lime thus used should not be 

sirable to add a small quantity of hydrated lime to the greater than 10 per cent by weight of the quantity of 

mixture so that the mortar will work easier under Lehigh cement in a given batch of mortar. More than 

the trowel or be "fatter," as it is called. In general, the this is likely to affect the strength of the mortar. 

Size of Size of 

Aggregate Aggregate 

1: 154 Mixture for in inches 1:2% Mixture for in inches 

Inside finish of water tanks, silos, and bin Scratch coat of exterior plaster 

walls, and for facing walls below ground (To pass through No. 8 Screen) 

when necessary to afford additional protec- Fence posts when coarse aggregate is not used X 
tion against the entrance of moisture 

(To pass through No. 8 Screen) 1 : 3 Mixture for 

Back plastering of gravity retaining walls Intermediate and finish stucco coats 

(To pass through No. 8 Screen) (To pass through n . 8 Screen) 

1 : 2 Mixture for Concrete block when coarse aggregate is not 

Facing block, ornamental, and other concrete used yi 

products V\ Concrete brick % 

Wearing course of two-course walks, floors Concrete drain tile and pipe when coarse 

subjected only to light loads, barnyard pave- aggregate is not used % 

ments etc Vi Ornamental concrete products X 



The ideal concrete mixture is approached 
in the mixtures recommended in the foregoing 
tables, assuming that the sand and coarse 
aggregates have been prepared with particular 
reference to grading. It will be noticed in these 
tables that there is a rather definite relation 
throughout between the volume of sand used 
with a certain volume of pebbles. That is, 
the quantity of sand approximates or in some 
cases is equivalent to half the volume of coarse 
aggregates used. This volume of sand, when 
mixed with the amount of cement called for 
(and water), in every instance makes a quan- 
tity of mortar sufficient to slightly more than 
fill the voids or air spaces in the bulk of large 
aggregate. 

Quantity and Quality of Water 

One of the most important factors in con- 
crete, mention of which has purposely been 
left until this point, is the quantity of water 
used in the mixture. Quality also is impor- 
tant. The water must be clean, free from silt 
and clay, should not be alkaline or acid, should 
not have oil floating upon it — in a word, 
might be described as of a quality fit to drink. 
If it meets that requirement, it is suitable for 
concrete. However, quantity of water used 
in a mixture is of greater importance. Too much 
or too little prevents maximum strength of con- 
crete possible from the proportions of materials 
being used. Comparing one extreme with the 
other, too little water within certain limits is 
better than too much. The latter tends to 
"drown" the cement, and results in weak- 
ening the concrete, just as would result from 
leaving out so much cement. 



As every one knows, the product concrete as 
we see it everywhere today could not exist 
were it not for the fact that cement in con- 
tact with water undergoes a change that 
causes it to harden. Therefore, when the 
materials of a concrete mixture are combined 
with water, the action taking place between the 
water and the cement develops the hardening 
properties of the latter and causes it to bind 
or literally cement the particles of sand and 
pebbles together into a solid mass. This trans- 
formation, often referred to as "setting," but 
more properly as hardening, is in reality a 
chemical change brought about by the com- 
bination of cement and water. Technically, it 
is a form of crystallization otherwise described 
as "hydration." Too little water, therefore, 
makes it evident that the full cementing or 
hardening properties of all the cement used in 
a certain mixture cannot be developed or util- 
ized; while, on the other hand, if too much 
water is used, the same hardening property is 
interfered with. It is impossible to specify a 
definite amount of water to be used in every 
particular instance. The reasons for this are 
probably partly evident to the reader. For 
example, sand and stone as used at the time of 
preparing a concrete mixture contain varying 
quantities of moisture which must be taken 
into consideration when adding water to the 
mixed materials. If the aggregates have been 
exposed a long time to sun and wind, they are 
naturally dry and will take up more water. 
If they have been exposed to rain recently, less 
water need be added. Under average condi- 
tions, assuming that a concrete mixture consists 
of 1 sack or 1 cubic foot of cement, 2 cubic feet 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



159 



of fine aggregate, and 4 cubic feet of coarse 
aggregate, the minimum quantity of water that 
will be practical to use will be about six 
gallons. This must not be taken as invariable 
because of influencing factors previously given. 
The effort should be to use the least quantity 
of water that will produce a workable mix. 

If 20 per cent, more water is used than that 
required for maximum strength, the strength of 
the resulting concrete will be reduced by about 
30 per cent. ; if 30 per cent, more water is used, 
only about one-half the possible strength of 
the concrete will be realized. Not only does an 
excess of mixing water reduce strength and 
resistance to wear or abrasion on floors or 
other pavements, but it amounts to a needless 
waste of cement. For plastic concrete the use 
of one pint of water more than is necessary in 
a one-sack batch produces the same reduction 
in strength as if we should leave out two or 
three pounds of cement. 

In most types of construction we cannot 
use concrete as dry as that giving maximum 
strength, since more water must be used in 
order to secure a workable concrete. It is most 
important that we sacrifice as little strength 
as possible in order to secure the necessary 
workability, by using the smallest quantity 
of mixing water that will produce a concrete 
which can be placed in the work. 

The accompanying table shows these quanti- 
ties for a wide range of mixtures. It is assumed 
that the aggregate is graded up to 1^ inches: 







Water Required 


Mix 


Approximate Mix as 


(Gallons per Sack 




Usually Expressed 


of Lehigh Cement) 




Volume 




Aggregate 






Lehigh 


of Aggre- 


Lehigh 




Mini- 


Maxi- 






Cement 


gate after 
Mixing 


Cement 


Fine 


Coarse 


mum 


mum 




3 


1 


1* 


IX 


5 


5X 




4 


1 


IX 


3 


5H 


6 




4^ 


1 


2 


3 


5H 


6^ 




5 


1 


2 


4 


6 


6X 




(>X 


1 


2V 2 


5 


7X 


IX 




IX 


1 


o 


6 


&X 


8X 



The degree of workability which a concrete 
mixture must possess may have to be varied 
slightly, depending on the character of the 
work for which the concrete is to bemused, but 
the following guide will always apply: 

Use the smallest quantity of 

mixing water that will produce 

a workable mix 



Methods of proportioning, mixing, placing, 
or finishing concrete which will enable the 
builder to keep the water content within the 
lowest practicable limits are of the utmost im- 
portance because of the increased strength and 
resistance to wear thus obtained. 

The Slump Test 

A dependable guide for determining approxi- 
mate consistency is known as the slump test. 

All that is required for this test is a tapered 
form of heavy tin or sheet metal made up as 
shown in the sketch on this page. After the con- 
crete has been thoroughly mixed it is placed 




This can be 
cut frorn a 
sheet 1 5 in. 
wide and£& 
in. /ong J not 
lighter 
than £0 
gauge. 



' I inch lap. 



Construction of tapered form for slump test 

in the tube until flush with the top, being thor- 
oughly settled by working with a pointed iron 
rod. Then the form is lifted, allowing the con- 
crete to settle or slump. After the pile has stood 
one or two minutes where there is no vibra- 
tion to disturb it, its height should be meas- 
ured and subtracted from the original height of 
12 inches. If concrete is being used to lay a 
pavement, floor, large foundation, or any work 
that can be tamped, the settlement or slump 

Yf3 "-Pavements Floors 
ana large Foundations 
7"-Thin vralls or Thin 
tvater tight structures. 

Pile of Concrete otter 
tube is removed 




Demonstration of slump test 



160 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



allowed may be between 2 and 3 inches, but 
should not exceed the latter. If concrete is 
to be used in thin walls with reinforcement, 
or in some section that must be watertight, 
the slump may be between 6 and 7 inches, but 
should not exceed the latter. If concrete is to 
be used in the making of such cement products 
as concrete block, where the mold is to be re- 
moved at once, there should be no slump, but 
as much water should be used as is possible 
without resulting in any deformation or set- 
tlement of the pile after the form has been 
removed. 

Storage of Materials 

No special methods need be provided for 
taking care of sand and coarse aggregates on 
the job other than to see that they are kept 
from becoming mixed with dirt or other for- 
eign material after they have been prepared 
for use. 

Cement, being very sensitive to moisture, 
must be carefully cared for, especially if it is 
kept in storage for any considerable time be- 
fore use. Even out on the job where any con- 
siderable quantity is on hand it should not 
be piled on the ground, but on an improvised 
platform of boards laid on pieces of 2 by 4 
lumber or something similar to keep it from 
coming in contact with the soil and from ab- 
sorbing the moisture at all times present in 
the ground. Once it has commenced to harden 
anywhere except in the concrete mixture as 
intended, some of its natural properties are 
lost at sacrifice to the strength of the con- 
crete. Provision should also be made for 
temporary coverings, such as waterproof can- 



vas, in case of a sudden shower. If it is nec- 
essary to keep cement in storage for any 
considerable time, a tight weatherproof shed 
should be provided, precaution being taken 
to see that the storage floor is well above 
ground level so that the cement cannot be 
affected by moisture; and a weathertight 
shed means one that has rainproof sides and 
roof and has no more windows in it (and these 
should be tight ones) than are necessary to 
provide only as much light as needed to make 
handling the cement in and out of the shed 
convenient. Ventilation should be kept at a 
minimum because the atmosphere contains 
varying quantities of moisture, depending upon 
weather conditions. 

Cement that has been stored for consider- 
able time in high piles may develop what is 
known as "warehouse set" or caking. This is 
noticed in sacks at the bottom of tall piles and 
is due to the pressure of sacks above. If the 
hardening noticed is nothing but that due to 
the pressure mentioned, mere handling of the 
sacks by rolling them or by dropping them 
gently on the warehouse floor will break up 
this caking. If any cement being used con- 
tains lumps which cannot be readily crushed 
in the hand, it is evident that the cement has 
been affected by moisture, and such lumps 
should be screened out when proportioning 
a mixture. 

Empty Sacks 

In selling Lehigh cement a charge is made to 
the dealer for cloth sacks and the dealer passes 
this charge along to his customer. This is 
only a temporary charge, because if the sacks 




Platform for hand mixing of sand, stone, cement, and water 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



161 




In hand mixing it is common to turn materials several times until all the ingredients have been thoroughly mixed 



are carefully handled, as they should be, they 
may be returned to the dealer and will be paid 
for by him in the same amount as charged out. 

The dealer may return them to the Lehigh 
Portland Cement Company for the same 
credit. 

It is particularly important that in handling 
cement sacks they be well shaken out and kept 
from becoming wet, because there is always 
enough cement in the cloth fabric to cause 
hardening if wet, and sacks are thus rendered 
worthless for credit. They should be opened 
carefully so as to avoid tearing, for if they 
become damaged in this way they are not 
returnable. 

Hand Mixing 

After having selected and properly prepared 
and proportioned the materials composing a 
concrete mixture, the several ingredients must 
be mixed together in a definite manner. This 
may be done either by hand, using preferably 
square-end shovels, or by machine. It is char- 
acteristic that the use of concrete requires rel- 
atively few special tools. In hand mixing 
about all that is needed is a mixing platform, 
usually 8 by 10 feet square, made of 1 or \~%. 
inch lumber, dressed on one side and prefer- 
ably tongued and grooved, so as to furnish a 
smooth, tight surface. This floor should be 
nailed to 2 by 4's set up on edge, three or four 
such strips being used to make a rigid platform 
to work upon. It is also well to put 2 by 2 or 
similar strips around and above three sides of 
the platform, to prevent shoveling materials 



off when mixing, also to prevent water, when 
added to the materials, from carrying cement 
away from the mixture. 

In hand mixing it is common to turn the 
materials several times — usually three or four 
times — until all the ingredients have been thor- 
oughly mixed, as indicated by uniform color 
of the resulting mass. 

Tools Needed 

In addition to the mixing platform, shovels, 
pails, or a hose, if running water is available, 
wheelbarrows for moving the concrete from 
the platform to the place where it is to be 
deposited are about all that are needed. 

In order to facilitate hand mixing some defi- 
nite method like the following should be em- 
ployed: First measure the required quantity 
of sand for a certain batch on the platform. On 
top of this place the required quantity of Lehigh 
cement. These two materials are then turned 
a number of times until there is no evidence of 
streaks of brown and gray, which is a sign 
that mixing has not been thorough. After 
this mixing level out the combined sand and 
cement to a thin layer on the platform and 
add the required number of cubic feet of peb- 
bles or broken stone. Usually these are wet 
slightly before placing on top of the sand- 
cement mixture. The broken stone and sand 
and cement are then turned together several 
times until they have been fairly well com- 
bined, when water should be added slowly 
by pouring it from a pail or preferably by 
gentle spray from a hose, the materials in the 



162 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



K 24 ' ~] 




meantime being turned over and over by a 
shoveler as water is added. 

Good concrete can be mixed as just de- 
scribed, but if any considerable quantity of 
construction is to be done, hand mixing be- 
comes more or less of a back-breaking job, and 
that is why most concrete is today mixed by 
machine. The types of concrete mixers are 
almost too numerous to mention. It is suffi- 
cient to say that they start with types of the 
small home user's variety, and run through a 
range of size and style with particular refer- 
ence to details of mechanical equipment lead- 
ing up to the almost gigantic ones commonly 
seen on such large pieces of construction as 
concrete paving jobs, etc. 



For many small pieces of concreting done by 
the casual worker, the purchase of a mixer is 
not justified. It is a common practice for 
concrete users in certain communities to plan 
personal building projects with a view to se- 
curing a community mixer which is rented out 
to all "stockholders" in the scheme until the 
cost of the equipment is finally absorbed, and 
no one who has been a party to the arrange- 
ment feels his particular share of the expense. 
Even after such community use has been ter- 
minated, the mixer may be made to return its 
cost several times by renting it out to other 
individuals desiring to do concrete work. 

Another advantage of machine mixed con- 
crete is the assurance of uniformity, in that 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



163 




A "community" machine mixer 



time and thoroughness of mixing are definitely 
controlled. Once it has been determined that 
a certain period of time or a certain number 
of revolutions of the drum produce a thor- 
ough mix, this same efficiency can be repeated 
in every subsequent batch. Of course, in using 
a mixer certain rules must guide. The drum 
should not be revolved more rapidly than is 
recommended by the manufacturer of the 
machine, who has determined its best average 



working speed. If the drum is revolved too 
rapidly, the materials tend to cling to the inner 
surface of the drum and will not be tumbled 
about sufficiently to be thoroughly mixed. 
Most concrete is not mixed long enough. If 
all concrete mixtures were agitated in the mixer 
drum for not less than one minute, and prefer- 
ably one and one-half minutes, the average 
quality of concrete work in general would be 
immeasurably improved. 



Forms for Concrete Construction 



WITHIN half an hour or less a concrete 
mixture, if left undisturbed, will com- 
mence to harden. In order that the plastic 
concrete shall assume the shape intended it 
must be quickly placed in forms. These forms, 
by their interior shape, govern the surface 
and other details of the structure. 

Forms or molds may be defined as the re- 
ceptacles in which a concrete mixture is placed 
soon after mixing so that it can be properly con- 
fined while hardening to the required shape. 

For a great deal of concrete work the forms 
required are relatively simple. Usually the only 
forms required for a concrete walk or drive- 
way are the side strips locating the actual edges 
of the walk or drive, and perhaps cross-pieces 
to define the limit of size of the various slabs 
into which the walk or drive is divided. See 
illustration on page 164. Forms for such work 
are therefore usually 2 by 4 or 2 by 6 strips 
of lumber set on edge and staked firmly in 
position so that the edges of the concrete will 



be true to line. In setting these forms it is 
necessary to level their upper surface or, if 
the work is not intended to be exactly level, 
then to set them so that the finished concrete 
surface will have the grade or slope desired. 
In building a concrete walk or laying a barn- 
yard pavement or concrete feeding floor, it is 
customary to give the surface a slope in either 
one or two directions, thus providing surface 
drainage. The top grade of forms which are 
used as a guide for finishing should be set in 
accordance with the slope or gradient of the 
finished surface. Form making for simple 
structures is not necessarily difficult and in- 
volves only limited carpenter skill. 

Since the greater portion of concrete work is 
seldom duplicated, most forms for concrete 
work are made of lumber. There are stan- 
dardized systems of forms intended for use 
where repeated setting for similar classes of 
work can be done. In such cases forms are 
often made of sheet steel riveted to angle irons 



164 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




The only forms for a concrete walk are side strips locating the actual edges 



to give them stiffness and prevent bending 
from the weight of the concrete. 

Where wood is used for forms, Norway pine, 
hemlock, or other lumber of similar quality and 
grade, is used for economy and because it is 
easy to work. In some cases wooden forms are 
metal lined for the two-fold purpose of making 
them last longer and insuring a better surface 
of the finished concrete. Metal molds are also 
used in some classes of concrete work. The all- 
metal mold is best represented by those por- 
tions regularly a part of machines for the man- 
ufacture of concrete block, tile, sewer pipe, etc. 



Forms are important because the appear- 
ance of the finished work is governed to a con- 
siderable degree by the care with which they 
are made and set up. 

Therefore, good workmanship on forms is 
well repaid. 

For work that is not to be exposed to view, 
such as an interior wall surface that ultimately 
is to be covered by sheathing and plaster, 
rough lumber will serve for form sheathing. 
Otherwise lumber dressed on one side, and 
preferably tongued and grooved, is to be pre- 
ferred. For such concrete work as foundation 




2"%4"Vr3me 



%-^'Hole0 for 



walls below ground level, 
forms are seldom used if 
the earth is firm enough 
to stand without caving. 
An exception to this is 
where the excavation for the founda- 
tion is so deep that dumping concrete 
into the trench will throw down soil 
into it and upon the concrete. 

2"x 4" Frame 



%'Ylo\&& for 



A standard form 
panel, 2 by 4 feet, 
built by nailing 1 by 6 
inch sheathing to a 
frame made of 2 by 4 
lumber. The smaller unit, which is 1 
by 2 feet, is one of a series of varying 
sized units used to supplement the 
larger unit, which is a standard 




'§"bo\t& 



Other units, of dimen- 
sions found convenient 
can be made and frames, 
arranged to permit bolt holes for 
assembling with the standard 
panels and with each other 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



165 



--— = wSoW^d door fra^Jft 




Assembled units set for con- 
creting an ordinary wall. 
They may be held together 
and kept correctly spaced 
by wire ties pulling against 
spacers set within the forms and by braces resting 
against stakes driven in the ground as shown 



Forms must have the strength required to 
support the mass of concrete involved in the 
section being built. It naturally requires less 
studding and bracing to make rigid forms for a 
floor 4 inches thick than for a floor 10 inches 
thick. Forms must not be yielding or the weight 
of concrete will cause a sag in the work. 

Seasoned Lumber 

Air-seasoned lumber is better for forms than 
green or kiln-dried. Green lumber is likely to 
dryoutafterbeingassembled in the forms. This 
will cause joints to open, resulting in the loss of 
cement, which would be carried away by water 
seeping through openings. Kiln-dried lumber 
is likely to bulge and swell when the wet con- 
crete comes in contact with it, thus forcing the 
forms out of line and resulting in an irregu- 
lar surface. Where true surfaces are impera- 
tive, form sheathing, whether dressed on one 
or on both sides, must be of uniform thickness. 
Inequalities of thickness will cause irregular- 
ities on the finished surface. 

Sheathing should not be more than four 
inches wide, although if of good clear lumber, 



may be 6 inches wide. The studs and bracing 
will be of varying dimensions in accordance 
with the weight they must carry. 

Considerable economy results from plan- 
ning forms carefully before cutting lumber. 
Planning involves careful study of the working 
drawings of the structure or object to be built. 
It should be remembered that the inside sur- 
faces of the forms lie against the concrete and 
thus reproduce the design, shape, or details in- 
tended. A projection designed on the structure 
calls for a depression in the face of the form 
to produce that projection. In other words, 
the form surface or interior face must be the 
reverse of the finished concrete surface or face. 

Standard Panels 

Often forms can be planned in such units or 
sections as to permit repeated use on similar 
portions of structures other than the ones for 
which first made, or they may be used on vari- 
ous other parts of the same structure, thus 
economizing on form cost. For example, most 
small foundations are made by setting up a 
variety of standardized wooden panels, staking 



Other assembled units for wall 

construction. Like the one 

above, it shows setting for 

openings 




166 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



and bracing them securely in place and posi- 
tion with reference to opposite sections and 
placing concrete in the space thus provided 
rather than by building special forms for each 
particular job. In that way economy of lum- 
ber results, because in such simple work as a 
house foundation these standardized sections or 
panels can be used repeatedly. Care and fore- 
thought given to planning forms will, therefore, 
result in economy of labor and materials. 

For silos, grain tanks, chimneys, and some 
other circular structures, as well as certain rec- 
tangular ones, metal forms have been devised. 
Such forms are in general use by silo builders 
and by general building contractors specializ- 
ing in concrete construction. 

Assembling Forms 

For simple concrete work it will often be 
found possible to assemble pieces by using 
very few nails or a few screws instead, making it 
easy to take forms apart when the work has 
been finished. In that way the lumber is un- 
damaged and can be put to some other use. The 
same holds true in setting forms in position for 
intricate concreting. Wires, screws, bolts, and 
improvised clampsare used and nailing avoided. 
These methods of securing forms in position 
until the concrete has hardened 
serve yet another purpose — forms 
can be taken down quickly and 



with less damage to green concrete than if 
hammering is done to release form parts or 
sections. 

Avoid Dry Forms 

It is customary to wet forms down during ex- 
tremely dry weather before placing any con- 
crete, so that the dry lumber will not absorb 
water from the concrete and thereby deprive 
it of moisture needed in its hardening. Each 
time after being taken down the forms should 
be thoroughly cleaned so as to leave them in 
condition for the next use. 

The forms for many small objects are often 
made of soft white pine thoroughly kiln dried 
because of the ease with which it may be 
worked. To prevent it from swelling, the lum- 
ber or the finished form is thoroughly treated 
or saturated with crude oil, which keeps the 
wood from absorbing moisture and thus warp- 
ing out of shape. This oil treatment also pre- 
vents the concrete from sticking to the form. 



3TO3 




For simple concrete work, where 

wood forms will answer, but 

little actual cutting of lumber 

may be required. It is often 

possible to assemble pieces by 
using a very few nails or screws so that the forms may be easily 
taken apart. The sketch to the right shows precast hollow 
block with lugs on the end. These lugs allow varying wall thick- 
nesses, as shown in the upper sketch. The one to the left 
suggests simple concrete step forms 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



167 




■7^m%i 



Forms used for the construction of a concrete roof should be 
supported by plenty of strong posts. The bottom of these 
posts should rest on double wedges, as shown above, to facili- 
tate easy removal. Few nails should be used 

Struts or posts supporting the actual forms 
or form sections for roofs and arches must be 
so set as to permit easy removal. Wedges that 
can be knocked out are generally used. See 
above. 

Cylindrical Forms 

Forms for cylindrical columns and irregular 
objects must be made in sufficient sections so 
that at no point will any 
part of the form bind or 
cling to a projecting part 
of the concrete when re- 
moving it. Molds or 
forms for fluted columns 
may have to be divided 
into eight or more sec- 
tions to make removal 
easy. Even the mold for 
a truly cylindrical object 
may have to be divided 
into three or more parts. 
If a form of this kind 
were to be divided merely 



into two parts, it is possible that the division 
line would not make the supposed halves equal, 
hence one section would bind or cling to post 
or column. This applies with but few excep- 
tions to all circular molds or forms. 

Cores for objects that are hollow must be 
planned so that they can be withdrawn without 
hammering or without exerting any force on 
the object that might tend to break the con- 
crete while it is soft. 

Below are examples illustrating some of the 
points just brought out and showing how forms 
of the type mentioned must be planned so that 
='4/-//// the various sections can be easily re- 
moved. 
Form removal should be done only when it 
is known that the concrete is strong enough. 
For some classes of work, such as ordinary 
walls for buildings only one story high, it may 
be possible to remove forms at the end of 
twenty-four or thirty-six hours, providing the 
concrete is to bear no load except its own 
weight. However, there is no invariable guide 
for form removal, but it is best to leave all forms 
in place a little longer than seems necessary. 
Particularly is this true in cold weather, because 
concrete then hardens very slowly. 




Sectional plan of form for 
fluted column 



Product with projecting surfaces 
Correct and incorrect methods 



Forms for cylindrical columns must be made in sufficient sections so that at no point 
will any form bind or cling to a projecting part of the concrete when it is being removed 




-Joint 



-Joinf 





Joint 



Incorrect method of making joints for circular forms 



Correct method 



168 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



Reinforcing Concrete 



THE incorporation of steel in a concrete 
mass makes it reinforced concrete. The 
reinforcement may be in the form of rods, wire, 
or mesh. Plain concrete is made without rein- 
forcement, and is best illustrated by ordinary 
foundation work. This concrete is placed in a 
mass and subjected to no strains other than 
that of compression, namely, carrying loads 
placed directly upon it. In this respect con- 
crete is remarkable for its great strength. It 
has an unusual ability to resist great crushing 
forces. But when concrete is used in thin sec- 
tions, such as overhead floors, beams, or slabs, 
it is subjected to tension, that is, bending 
strains, and unless reinforcement is embedded, 
it will not carry loads required. 

The principle of reinforcement can be illus- 
trated in a simple fashion. If we make a cube 
of concrete, say one inch square, it will support 
a relatively large load placed directly upon it 
without crushing. If we were to take this cube 
of concrete and increase its dimensions by 
changing it into a column, say one inch square 
and ten inches high, it might still sustain a 
considerable load, but other strains would be 
brought to bear upon it, and because of its 
length these strains might tend to bend it and 
thus exert what is known as the force of ten- 
sion, the strain induced by pulling and bending. 



If we took this same column 1 inch square 
and 10 inches long and laid it in horizontal po- 
sition supported only at its ends, it would not 
carry anywhere near the same load placed at 
its center or any point between the two ends 
as it would support standing in a vertical 
position acting as a column. Also if we took 
this "beam" of concrete and fixed it so that it 
would be supported at one end only, allow- 
ing the other end to project unsupported, the 
beam would not support much load at its free 
end and would not have to be made very long 
by comparison with its cross-sectional area 
to cause it to break of its own weight. The 
breaking of the beam, whether loaded at its 
center or at any point between the two sup- 
porting ends or by breaking due to its own 
weight when supported at one end only, is 
due to tension or pulling strains. 

Strength of Concrete 

The compressive strength of concrete is 
approximately ten times its tensile strength. 
Reinforcing metal of suitable size and shape 
properly embedded in the concrete provides 
the strength which concrete lacks in tension 
and therefore the use of concrete for beams and 
floors as well as for walls or any other parts of 
a structure is practical. 




In reinforced concrete the rods are placed in certain positions so that the steel thus embedded will take the 

tension and safely carry the load 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



169 



The reinforcement placed in it is effective 
because, properly mixed, well-placed concrete 
of correct consistency adheres to the steel or 
forms a bond with it and thus holds the steel 
in fixed position so that when loads are applied 
on the concrete the steel immediately takes its 
share of the strain, and prevents the concrete 
from failing. 

Types of Reinforcement 

Reinforcement, as already intimated, may 
be in the form of steel rods or various kinds 
of mesh or fabric. The rods may be round, 
square, or variously deformed, the last type 
of rod reinforcement being found in the market 
in considerable variety and usually subject to 
some patent control. The object of deforming 
the rods either by rolling lugs on or making 
depressions in their surface is for the purpose 
of increasing the "mechanical bond" between 
the concrete and steel. 

Mesh or fabric of various kinds for concrete 
reinforcement are sold under different trade 
names. The term "expanded metal" is ap- 
plied to a type of reinforcing fabric made by 
regularly slotting sheets and then stretching 
or "expanding" these sheets until the slots 
open and cause the sheet to appear in the form 
of mesh or netting. 

Other types of reinforcing mesh are not 
unlike wire fencing, with the exception that 
the mesh openings are of uniform size, so that 



a definite total weight of reinforcement can be 
determined and provided for any particular 
reinforced section. 

The principle of reinforcingcan be illustrated 
in several simple ways. Probably the simplest 
illustration is for one to take a small tree branch , 
say yi inch in diameter, and bend it across his 
knee. The part next to one's knee or toward 
one while being bent will show that the bark on 
that surface is wrinkling, in other words, being 
compressed, while the surface farthest away 
will show that the bark is cracking, or, if bend- 
ing continues far enough, the fibers of the wood 
will break, while the inner portion will still re- 
main unfractured. In other words, the outer 
section of the branch has been compelled to 
take tension, could not stand it to the limit 
exposed, and therefore the fibers were torn 
asunder, while the inner side of the branch 
shows compression, as illustrated by the wrink- 
ling of the bark. If a steel wire could have 
been embedded and positively fixed in the 
branch before bending, the break would not 
have occurred until the wire broke. 

Position of Reinforcement 

In reinforced concrete beams and floor or 
roof slabs, rods of suitable size and number are 
placed in a position determined by engineering 
computations so that the steel thus embedded 
will take the tension and make the beam or slab 
carry safely the load for which it was designed. 




ROUND DAK. 




SQUARE BAE-WISTED 




EXFAHDED METAL 




SQUARE BAR 



SQUARE BAR-DEFORMED 




WIKE MESH 



Reinforcing materials 



170 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 







f^A. 








\ 

\ 

\ 1 




/ 
/ 
/ 












-». A 







v. ■' '-.»:■ 



Section A'A 



Concrete beam supported 
on both ends. Rods placed 
along bottom, where tensile 
strength is required. Alter- 
nate rods bent up as some 
pull occurs at the top, near 
supporting points 




Elevation . 



Wall roof and parapet 



p. v o\p p p 



•-P •■■-■■ 'p. ■ 




wmm 



Vertical section through 
underground cistern 




Retaining wall 



.» Jf> : p>7'- X-Y-' P-' ; -?-">' 5 



c ■ 



Reinforcement is placed near the opposite face to that against which the load is applied 



The principle of reinforcing a column can be 
illustrated in a simple fashion also. Make a cyl- 
inder of thin paper, — the thinner the better, — 
and carefully fill this cylinder with sand while 
holding this paper "form" in an upright posi- 
tion with one end resting on a table top. After 
this paper cylinder has been filled commence 
applying pressure to the upper end with the 
hand and it will not be long before sufficient 
pressure will have been applied to cause the 
thin shell or "form" of paper to burst. 

If, instead of paper for this form, we had used 
cardboard, it is evident more pressure would 
be needed to burst the cylinder casing. In 
other words, this casing acted as reinforcement 
to prevent the effect of bursting pressure. 

If the cylinder is made of tin and filled with 
sand, still more weight or pressure will be 
required to cause the tin casing to burst. 

These simple progressive illustrations are 
typical of the practice of reinforcing columns 



by hooping vertical rods, vertical rods being 
used in connection with the hooping to prevent 
the bending due to lateral pressure or load or, 
as it is scientifically referred to, "eccentric 
loading." 

These examples are homely ones, intended 
only to make the principles clear. The subject 
of reinforced concrete is an engineering one 
and the design of reinforced concrete depends 
upon a knowledge of the engineering principles 
involved. The mathematics of the subject are 
complicated and an understanding of them is 
not within the capabilities of the person with- 
out engineering training. This is no bar to 
the actual performance of concrete construc- 
tion because plans for all ordinary types of 
concrete construction are readily obtained, and 
if not exactly suited to a prospective builder's 
requirements, form the basis of redesign that 
can readily be done by an architect having a 
knowledge of reinforced concrete. 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



171 




Outer forms and reinforcement in place for building con- 
crete stock watering trough. Illustration shows how pro- 
vision has been made for overflow pipe, which also serves 
as outlet by unscrewing the pipe, the bottom of which will 
be exactly level with the floor when concrete has been placed 



In doing any concrete work that calls for 
reinforcing, care must be taken to see that the 
reinforcement, whatever its form, rods or fabric, 
be placed in exactly the position called for by 
the plans. There are two reasons for this: 
First, the position shown in the plans is the 
one determined as best to secure its full effec- 
tiveness with relation to economy of actual 
concrete required in the work. In any kind of 
reinforced concrete construction where there 
is a possibility that at some time the structure 
may be subjected to fire, the steel must be 
sufficiently embedded in the concrete to pro- 
tect it. The thorough embedding of reinforce- 
ment is also necessary if the desired strength 
is to be attained. 

Care of Materials 

Reinforcing material should be carefully 
cared for while on the job to keep it from be- 
coming coated with grease or other foreign sub- 
stances that would prevent the concrete from 
adhering to it. If it has rusted before being 
used, all rust in the form of dust, and particu- 
larly scale, must be removed by brushing with 
a wire brush or striking with a hammer or in 
whatever other manner proves effective. Often 
rods have to be shaped at some point in their 
length in order to conform to certain details of 



placing shown in the plans. Whenever rein- 
forcing steel must be bent for that reason, 
bends should be made gradually so that the 
steel will not be subjected to sudden stress 
which might cause small fractures, thus im- 
pairing its full effectiveness. 

Much dissatisfaction has resulted from some 
home-made concrete because the beginner has 
been told by someone who did not know any 
better that any kind of scrap metal, such as 
barbed wire, chain, old pipe, etc., would answer 
as reinforcement instead of the special mate- 
rials provided and intended for the purpose. 
The result has been that tanks have cracked 
and, consequently, leaked; silos have bursted 
in the same fashion. Almost invariably the 
concrete itself or the cement has been con- 
demned when the fault was all in the workman- 
ship. Reinforcing steel, whether in the form of 
rods, mesh, or fabric, is supposed to have a 
certain chemical composition resulting in giv- 
ing it certain definite strength and other desir- 
able qualities as a reinforcing material. For 
that reason it is not likely that rods such as one 
might obtain from the local blacksmith's shop 
or fencing fabric from the local hardware store 
will answer the purpose, nor even be as cheap 
nor as good as reinforcing material made spe- 
cially for the purpose. All of the common 
types of reinforcement can be procured through 
the local building material dealer. 

Length of Rods 

Naturally, rods and the various other kinds 
of reinforcing material used are limited as to 
length and pieces. It is necessary to splice 
reinforcement to make it continuous if the 
section being reinforced is longer than stock 
lengths of rods. Expanded metal generally 
comes in sheets; mesh fabric usually comes in 
rolls. Rods come in definite lengths, governed 
largely by their weight and also shipping con- 
ditions. 

When placed in concrete as reinforcement, 
the ends of mesh should be overlapped 4 inches 
or more and bound together securely by wire 
so as to prevent displacement during placing 
of concrete. Rods should be lapped from fifty 
to sixty times their diameter. They should 
have their lapped ends separated enough to 
permit surrounding everywhere with concrete 
and thus produce perfect bond or adhesion 
with the steel. Whenever expanded metal or 



172 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



wire mesh is used to reinforce small objects, 
such as flower-boxes, bird-bath basins, fountain 
bowls, and watering tanks, it is necessary to cut 
the fiat sheets so that the reinforcement can 
be properly shaped, and afterward the cut 
edges must be joined to conform to the general 
lines of the product. This is called developing 
the sheet of reinforcement. To illustrate this 
sketches on pages 78 and 79 are shown, in- 
tended to represent the plan of laying out 
reinforcement from a sheet of mesh to be used 
in a fountain bowl or basin. The greater the di- 
ameter of the bowl to be reinforced, the greater 
the number of radial cuts that are required to 
enable shaping the reinforcement properly 
and regularly. An illustration of developing 



reinforcement in this fashion is to take an 
orange, cut it in half, then make cuts from 
the diameter down to the stem, and remove 
the peeling and lay all of it flat on the table. 
This example is a counterpart of the sketch. 

Steel is used instead of other metal for rein- 
forcing concrete because it has practically the 
same ratio of expansion as concrete. In other 
words, all substances expand and contract 
under changing temperature conditions and 
the rate of this expansion as between steel 
and concrete is so nearly the same that the 
bond between the concrete and steel is not 
broken. No other metal has so nearly the 
same ratio of expansion and contraction under 
temperature changes, therefore steel is used. 



Placing Concrete 



W r ITH the subjects of selection of mate- 
rials, proportioning, mixing, providing the 
necessary forms, and reinforcement thoroughly 
understood, we can now take up the placing of 
concrete. Concrete commences to harden very 
shortly after the water is added. It is there- 
fore evident that as soon after mixing as pos- 
sible the concrete should be placed in the 
forms in order that it may assume the shape 
intended. It is convenient to have the mixing 
operation carried on as near the place where 
the concrete is to be deposited as possible. 
When hand mixing is done, the mixing plat- 
form can be moved from time to time in order 
to make the least handling of concrete neces- 
sary. The mixer also can be moved from 
place to place as it seems desirable to shorten 
the distance of moving concrete or to make 
placing speedier and more convenient. On 
large engineering structures the matter of 
placing concrete may be considerably varied 
within a wide range of methods. For the aver- 
age structure, placing concrete is merely mov- 
ing it from mixer drum to forms by means of 
shovels, buckets, or wheelbarrows. 

When concrete is being placed in an excava- 
tion for a foundation wall, it is well to lay 
boards or planks along and across the trench 
so that workmen walking along its edge or 
wheeling barrows loaded with concrete can 
dump the concrete without breaking down the 
trench sides. All concrete work should be so 
planned that the quantity of concrete to be 



placed during the working day or whatever 
time is set aside to the work can be estimated 
closely enough so that when quitting time 
comes the job may be left in suitable condition 
for easily resuming further work. Concrete 
should be deposited in layers of uniform thick- 
ness throughout the enclosure made by the 
forms. From six to eight inches is the greatest 
depth that should be placed at one time, be- 
cause a layer of greater thickness cannot be 
spaded or tamped to complete compactness. 
Sometimes concrete is placed so as to com- 
plete various sections, the full length of the 
forms or full height of the concrete section 
being built, thus making the work practically 
continuous. Arrange for as continuous con- 
creting as possible to prevent construction 
seams. 

When a dry concrete mixture is used, plac- 
ing is done by vigorous tamping after the con- 
crete has been placed. If the class of work 
being done requires concrete containing more 
water, or what is usually described as quaky 
consistency, then the concrete is consolidated 
in the forms by spading. This settles it to ut- 
most density, causes it thoroughly to sur- 
round and adhere to reinforcement if reinforce- 
ment is being used, and releases air-bubbles 
that may be entrapped in the concrete. Spad- 
ing concrete next to form faces is very impor- 
tant, because in that way a dense, even surface 
is produced, by forcing back from contact with 
the forms the particles of coarse aggregate 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



173 



which allow a film of sand-cement mortar to 
settle next to form faces. Another reason is 
that thorough spading increases density and 
hence watertightness. 

A convenient spading tool may be made 
from a piece of hard wood board six inches 
wide and one inch thick, shaped to have a chisel 
edge at the lower end and so cut away at the 
upper end as to form a handle. An old garden 
spade or hoe may be flattened out and slotted 
and used in the same manner. Narrower spad- 
ing tools or sometimes rods are needed when 
working the concrete around reinforcement 
and in narrow spaces. 




Spading concrete next to form faces causes the concrete to 
settle to its utmost density 




Spader made of a 1" by 6" board 

Methods of placing concrete vary some- 
what in accordance with the kind of work be- 
ing done. For walks, floors, and similar pave- 
ments the concrete is usually carried from 
the mixer or mixing platform in wheelbarrows 
and is placed on the spot where it is to be 
leveled off. Particularly when concreting 



troughs, watering tanks, silos, and other struc- 
tures which should be both air-and water-tight, 
it is necessary to carry on concreting as continu- 
ously as possible so as to eliminate construction 
seams. Many jobs cannot be completed within 
a working day. Therefore the plane where 
work has stopped one day must be left in such 
condition as to make it easy to resume work 
later and leave no effect of a seam or lack of 
union between the two planes. This is usually 
done by roughening the concrete in the form 
when work is stopped, then immediately be- 
fore resuming work painting the old surface 
with a paint made of cement and water, mixed 
like thick cream and applied with a broom or 
swab and immediately following this by plac- 
ing concrete in the regular way. Between 
narrow forms concrete has to be placed in 
thinner layers because of the difficulty of spad- 
ing in the narrow space. Under such condi- 
tions only one form section should be boarded 
up to full height, leaving the other to be boarded 
up as concreting progresses. 

Precautions must be taken not to allow con- 
crete to drop through too great a height when 
placing. From six to eight feet is the maxi- 
mum distance. If allowed to fall a greater 
distance, there will be some separation of ma- 
terials, with the result that the finished work 
will show pebble pockets on the surface. 

Central Mixing Tower 

On large work, involving the placing of a con- 
siderable volume of concrete, a central mixing 
plant is usually erected and towers provided to 
elevate the mixed concrete to such a height 
that it can be distributed over a wide area 
by means of chutes or spouts. Such methods 
of placing, where practicable, represent great 
economy of time. However, the method as 
applied on certain jobs is often deserving of 
just criticism because, in order to facilitate 
speeding up of the work, the concrete is mixed 
too wet for the purpose of causing it to flow more 
rapidly or readily down the chute. This bad 
practice is often the result of attempting to 
make a central plant serve too large an area 
at one setting, and in that case the chutes or 
spouts used lie at such a small angle with the 
horizontal that concrete will not flow into 
place unless made too wet. Never forget what 
has been said elsewhere about the importance 
of the correct quantity of water in concrete. 



174 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




Concrete work should be wet for several days after placing 



Curing Concrete 



THE majority of people seem to have the 
impression that the hardening of concrete 
is a drying process. This is not true. Attention 
has been called to the fact that it is the com- 
bination of the water with the cement that 
causes concrete to harden. Forms are taken 
down and the work is exposed to wind and sun 
in the belief that such treatment is the one 
which should be given to complete harden- 
ing. This practice deprives the concrete of 
a great deal of added strength it would have 
attained had proper protection been given to 
the work for a few days after the last concrete 
was placed. Exposure to drying influences 
weakens concrete structurally, and deprives 
concrete floors, walks, and other pavements of 
strength that would increase wear resistance. 
Instead of being neglected, proper curing of 
concrete should be universally practised. 

Curing Completes Hardening 

Walks, floors, and walls have a large surface 
area exposed to the atmosphere, sun and wind 
causing evaporation. This robs the concrete 
of a vital element. Wall forms furnish a mea- 
sure of protection to concrete walls above 
ground. The earth of a foundation trench in 
contact with the concrete provides all the pro- 



tection the foundation needs while curing. 
Work above ground, however, should be wet 
down for several days by drenching with 
water in order to complete hardening by keep- 
ing the concrete moist. Floors, sidewalks, 
street, and road pavements are protected by a 
layer of moist earth, sawdust, or other mois- 
ture-retaining material applied as soon as it can 
be placed without marring the surface of the 
concrete. The best method of pavement pro- 
tection, where it can be applied, is to flood the 
surface with water. Floors can almost always 
be protected in this way by throwing up^ a 
small earth embankment around their edges 
to retain the water. Highway pavements are 
cured in the same manner. 

Steam Curing Chambers 

Concrete block, concrete brick, and concrete 
structural tile, fence posts, sewer pipe, drain 
tile, and all other so-called concrete products, 
are preferably cured by keeping them in the 
presence of moist heat, such as is provided in 
so-called steam curing chambers. The manu- 
facture of all such products is seldom carried 
on by the home worker except on a very small 
scale, and to him the steam curing method is 
not practicable. Therefore, ordinary water 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



175 



3'Concreie slob 



3'C/eon screened cinders r2l' Concrete slab 




A concrete steam curing chamber 

curing by spraying or by keeping the products 
covered with wet straw or other moisture- 
retaining material is the alternative method. 



Products plants are equipped with steam 
curing chambers. These contain narrow gauge 
car tracks to permit running into them small 
cars loaded with the finished products as 
removed from the molds or machines. The 
chambers are then sealed and moist steam 
turned into them, the chambers kept at a con- 
stant temperature for forty-eight hours, during 
which time, because of the steam curing condi- 
tions, the products acquire a uniform hardness 
not possible to attain in any other way. 

The home worker should always bear in 
mind the importance of curing concrete in 
some one of the ways just described. Such 
curing is well repaid in the greater strength, 
durability, and wear resistance of the concrete, 
particularly as applied to driveways, walks, and 
such pavements as are laid in barnyards and in 
hog lots for feeding floors. During moderate 
weather, where floors are being laid indoors, 
the structure enclosure makes extreme meas- 
ures of curing unnecessary. Occasional sprink- 
ling of the concrete surface for several days 
will increase its strength. 



Waterproofing of Concrete 



WATERPROOFING is relatively simple 
and should always be built into the con- 
crete. The general impression is that concrete 
is porous, but if the fundamental principles 
governing concrete practice are followed, this 
material can be made impervious to moisture. 

Concrete is Watertight 

The fact that concrete, well made, properly 
placed, and protected while curing, is from a 
practical aspect watertight, is proved by many 
structures long used successfully as containers 
for water, oil, and other liquids. Thin sections 
of concrete may contain small fissures that will 
permit seepage. Such sections are almost in- 
variably porous in spots because of the diffi- 
culty of placing thin sections of concrete in 
forms so as to secure uniform density. There 
are countless structures, such as tanks, reser- 
voirs, and standpipes, which have never leaked 
and which disprove statements that concrete 
cannot be made watertight. 

Primarily several fundamentals govern the 
success or failure to attain watertight concrete. 
If the concrete mixtures are not properly pro- 
portioned; if the materials of which they are 



proportioned are not properly graded so as to 
reduce voids to the lowest possible limit; if the 
mixtures are too dry or too wet; if, after plac- 
ing, the concrete is not protected against too 
rapid drying, the resulting structure will not 
be watertight. Reinforcing steel must be pro- 
tected against rust and this can be done only 
when the concrete in which it is embedded is 
impermeable to water. The fact that many 
concrete structures have been remodeled, en- 
larged, or torn down, exposing reinforcing steel 
that had been embedded for many years effec- 
tively protected against rust, shows that the 
concrete must have been damp-proof. Good 
concrete practice in all its details is about all 
that is necessary to insure watertightness of 
concrete for ordinary purposes-. 

One of the oldest processes of waterproofing 
concrete is known as the Sylvester process. It 
consists of adding alum and soft soap to the 
concrete when mixed or applying separate 
solutions of these materials to the concrete sur- 
face after it is finished. The principle of their 
effectiveness is due to the fact that chemical 
compounds are formed that fill the pores of the 
concrete with an insoluble material. 



176 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



Asphalt and coal-tar are sometimes used for 
waterproofing, particularly as applied to the 
outside of foundation or basement walls. They 
are applied hot with a mop. Several coats are 
usually given. The illustrations on page 59 show 
methods of waterproofing. Extra precautions 
should be taken to cover all corners thoroughly. 

Failure to make some classes of construction 
waterproof can be remedied by various after- 
treatments. If leakage from a cistern or tank 
consists merely of slight seepage through the 
walls, a coat of cement mortar may be applied 
to the interior of the tank. The surface must 
be thoroughly cleansed by scrubbing it with 
water and a good stiff wire brush. If scrub- 
bing will not clean the surface, then the ce- 
ment film should be removed by applying a 
wash of one part muriatic acid to three or four 
parts of water, allowing this to remain for a 
very few moments and then thoroughly rinsing 
with clean water. Immediately before apply- 
ing the plaster coat the cleansed surface should 
be painted with cement and water mixed to the 
consistency of cream. This can be applied with 
an ordinary brush and the plaster should be 
spread on immediately and worked in place 
vigorously before this wash has commenced to 
harden. Plastering will not remedy cracking 
due to deficient and ineffective reinforcement. 
The only way to repair such a structure is to 
use the old tank as a form and build a new re- 
inforced concrete linins: within it. Another 



method used to repair leaky tank walls where 
seepage is due to porous concrete resulting from 
poor workmanship is to fill the pores by apply- 
ing a solution of what is commonly known as 
water-glass. This chemical can be obtained at 
any drug-store. To apply it, one part water- 
glass is added to three or four parts of water, 
and several coatings painted on at intervals of 
twenty-four hours until the pores in the sur- 
face have been filled. 

Cracks Can be Repaired 

Cracks in tanks, troughs, or cistern walls 
can be repaired by cutting out each side of the 
crack to form a "V"-shaped groove, one and 
one-half inches deep and about one inch wide, at 
the surface. If the reinforcement can be de- 
pended upon to prevent the crack opening any 
wider, this groove can be calked with oakum 
soaked in tar until about half of the groove 
depth is filled, when the remainder is filled with 
a 1:2 cement mortar; or, after having calked 
the bottom of the crack with oakum soaked in 
tar, a plastic mixture consisting of pine tar and 
Lehigh Portland cement, combined in propor- 
tion so as to make a paste as stiff as can be 
conveniently handled, should be worked into 
the groove until it has been filled. This prep- 
aration may tend to harden slightly while 
being used, but can be kept sufficiently plastic 
by subjecting it to moderate heat in the metal 
receptacle in which it is mixed. 



Surface Finish of Concrete 



CONCRETE possesses the advantage of 
manipulation to secure readily a great 
variety of surface finishes. Some of these 
finishes are given entirely after the work has 
been completed. Others are partly arranged 
for when the materials are selected. 

The simplest form of surface finish is that 
secured by placing the concrete in well-made 
regular forms and spading next to form faces 
so that a film of cement-sand mortar will lie 
next to the surface. This has a somewhat 
monotonous appearance, and whatever color 
may be in evidence is due almost entirely to 
the cement. The sand does not affect the color 
of the surface to any extent because the par- 
ticles are covered with a film of cement. If 
forms have been well made, the only treatment 
that is necessary to give to such a natural sur- 



face is to patch up small imperfections, using a 
mortar of the same proportions of cement and 
sand as the mortar of the concrete. After- 
ward this is rubbed smooth and even by using a 
wooden float while the surface is kept wet. If 
the whole surface or object is gone over in this 
manner, a fairly good finish can be secured at 
little expense. The surface will be as smooth 
as the forms in which the concrete was placed, 
and will also be dense and watertight. 

Another finish is secured by floating the sur- 
face with carborundum stone while the surface 
is kept wet. The earlier the surface is rubbed 
after form removal, the easier it is to eliminate 
inequalities due to grain markings of wood and 
joints of sheathing, etc. Rubbing fills surface 
pores and small cavities. Usually hair crack- 
ing is prevented by this treatment. 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



177 



By far the most attractive finishes that can 
be given to concrete are those which are in large 
part prearranged when mixing the materials. 
Selected aggregates are chosen principally be- 
cause of their color, as well as for their ability to 
take polish. White sand, marble chips, granite 
screenings, crushed feldspar, mica and mica 
spar, crushed slag, garnet sand, and similar 
colored rock materials are used. Mixtures are 
prepared and placed in the usual way. The sur- 
face finish is obtained by washing off the film of 
cement that coats the particles, thus exposing 
them in the surface of the concrete and in that 
way revealing their color. If the forms are re- 
moved within twenty-four hours after placing 
concrete, it is usually possible to wash off the 
surface film of cement by merely scrubbing the 
surface of the object with a stiff bristle brush 
kept wet with water. If the concrete has be- 
come too hard to yield to this treatment, then 
an acid wash is used. This usually consists of 
one part common muriatic acid to three or four 
parts of water. This wash is applied with a 
brush, the surface meanwhile being scrubbed 
lightly until the film of cement has been re- 
moved. Immediately afterward the surface 
of the object must be quickly and thoroughly 
washed with clean water so that all trace of 
acid will be removed and its further action pre- 
vented, otherwise some of the aggregate par- 
ticles will be loosened from the surface. 

Variations of Color 

Variations in color and texture of surfaces 
which are to be secured by washing or other- 
wise exposing the aggregate are almost num- 
berless. They are limited only by the number 
of combinations that can be made using the 
materials at hand. For instance, a mixture of 
yellow and of white marble chips, or a mix- 
ture of gray granite screenings and black 
crushed slag, with a little mica spar or mica, are 
examples of possible variations. Such mix- 



tures produce a beautiful surface texture when 
the film of cement is removed by scrubbing 
either with water or the acid solution, depend- 
ing upon the age of the concrete. 

Another method of finishing a concrete sur- 
face is to tool it in several ways, just as 
natural stone is cut. If the surface is to be 
treated in this way, particular attention must 
be paid to selecting the aggregates, and still 
greater attention to proportioning the concrete 
mixtures so that there is certain to be enough 
cement to fill all the voids or air spaces and 
firmly to bond all particles so tooling will not 
dislodge them. Concrete that is to be tooled 
must be older (harder) than where other meth- 
ods of surface finishes are used. Aggregates 
used should be of uniform hardness. Broken 
stone instead of pebbles are best because of 
the variation of hardness of natural pebbles. 

The degree of polish that can be obtained 
upon a concrete surface depends upon the 
thorough grading of the mixture. 

Addition of Coloring-matter 

Another variation possible in concrete sur- 
faces is secured by adding coloring-matter to 
the cement. This method can be combined 
with selected aggregates. For example, if a 
uniform reddish tone is desired on the surface, 
red oxide of iron may be added to the cement 
and pink or red granite chips used as aggre- 
gate along with garnet sand. Such a concrete 
surface is treated either by scrubbing or by 
rubbing down with carborundum stone. Col- 
oring may also be accomplished by immersing 
the object in metallic salts and depending 
upon oxidization on exposure to atmosphere to 
complete the effect desired. The sulphates of 
iron and copper are the ones most used for this 
method of coloring, and produce results which 
closely resemble weathered bronze. Other 
methods of surface finish are described under 
the discussion of stucco, on pages 117 to 120. 



COLORING-MATTER 



Dry Material Used 


Weight of Dry Coloring-matter to 1 Sack Lehigh Cement, 


yi Pound 


1 Pound 


2 Pounds 


Lamp black 

Prussian blue 

Ultramarine blue 

Yellow ochre 

Burnt umber 

Venetian red 

Chattanooga iron ore 

Red iron ore 


Light slate 
Light green slate 

Light green 
Light pinkish slate 
Slate, pink tinge 
Light pinkish slate 
Pinkish slate 


Light gray 
Light blue slate 
Light blue slate 

Pinkish slate 
Bright pinkish slate 
Dull pink 
Dull pink 


Blue gray 
Blue slate 
Blue slate 

Dull lavender pink 
Light dull pink 
Light terra-cotta 
Terra-cotta 







178 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




In cold weather aggregates and water are readily heated by stoves improvised from sections of old steel smokestack 

Concrete in Cold Weather 



WITHIN the past five years or more con- 
struction practices based on a better 
understanding of the possibilities of concrete 
have proved that there is no necessity for sus- 
pending or deferring ordinary concrete work 
because of cold weather. 

Naturally, the home worker would not choose 
winter as the most inviting season to carry on 
such construction, but if he has time on his 
hands and certain building requirements to 
meet, cold weather is no bar. Particularly is 
this true of foundation work, heavy walls, 
floors indoors, and the manufacture of concrete 
products where the building enclosure protects 
the work. 

There is no change in general concreting prac- 
tice in winter, so far as mixture and methods of 
placing concrete go. The difference lies in some 
special preparation of materials, such as heating 
water and aggregates, and in protecting the 
work until the concrete has hardened. Materi- 
als such as sand and pebbles or broken stone are 
readily heated by stoves improvised from sec- 
tions of old steel smokestack, and water may 
be heated in any convenient receptacle. If 
steam under pressure is available, water can be 
heated by discharging steam into barrels filled 



with water, and steam jets can be introduced 
into aggregate piles to warm these materials. 

The principles necessary to observe may 
briefly be summarized as follows: 

Forms should be free from ice and snow 
before concrete is placed. 

All the materials except cement should be 
heated so that, immediately after concrete has 
been mixed, its temperature will not be lower 
than 80 degrees Fahrenheit. 

As soon as possible after mixing the con- 
crete should be placed in forms. 

All work on the job should be speeded up. 
Immediately after placing, steps must be taken 
to provide proper protection against actual 
freezing of the concrete. It is well known 
that heat hastens the hardening of concrete and 
that cold retards it. 

When prevailing temperatures are in the 
neighborhood of 38 degrees Fahrenheit, the 
hardening of concrete is practically suspended. 
At the freezing-point (32 degrees) it ceases en- 
tirely. A variety of methods can be used to 
protect the concrete. These should be such as 
to keep the concrete as nearly at 60 degrees 
Fahrenheit as possible over a period of at 
least two days. At the end of this time 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



179 



WINTER CONCRETE 

Steam to heat the mixing water 

and rid the forms and aggregates 

of ice 




180 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 







Canvas covering raised as the work progressed 



hardening will have progressed far enough to 
render it proof against injury from freezing. 

Frozen concrete should not be mistaken for 
naturally hardened concrete. 

Forms should not be removed from concrete 
work done in cold weather until it is positively 
known that the concrete will be self-supporting, 
or if it is to be exposed to loads other than its 
own weight, has acquired sufficient strength. 

Salamanders or coke-burning stoves will 
maintain the required temperature. Where 
the work is not enclosed, canvas or building 
paper fastened to frames of studding will pro- 
vide the necessary housing. 

From the contractor's standpoint, the ad- 
vantages of continuing concrete work during 



cold weather are that effective labor organiza- 
tions can be kept intact and the overhead ex- 
pense of operation distributed over a greater 
number of months, — perhaps throughout the 
twelve months, — rather than for a period com- 
monly known as the construction season, which 
seldom averages more than seven months. 
From the standpoint of the owner of a build- 
ing, the advantages are early occupancy and, 
therefore, opportunity to benefit sooner from 
the profits of the business. The concrete prod- 
ucts plant through winter operation is enabled 
to accumulate during the season of least de- 
mand a supply of products ready for the early 
spring demand when construction activities 
commence. 



Concrete in Warm Weather 



THE protection that should be given to 
concrete work during hot, dry weather is 
about the same for all classes of concrete work. 
Ways and means of applying it may differ 
slightly, but all aim to prevent the concrete 
from drying out. 

! Floors, walks, street and highway pave- 
ments may be protected by very simple 
means. In extremely hot weather it is best to 
stretch canvas on frames over concrete street 
and highway pavement immediately after 
the surafce has been struck off and floated. 
Then when the concrete has hardened enough 
so it will not be marked or pitted by covering 
with earth or other water-retaining material, 
two inches of this should be evenly spread over 



the surface. This covering should be sprink- 
led often enough each day to keep it always 
moist. 

Walls of such structures as concrete silos and 
water tanks should be protected either by fre- 
quent sprinkling or preferably by hanging can- 
vas or burlap over them. The covering as well 
as the concrete should be sprinkled often. 
Sometimes, especially when temperatures are 
not extremely high, sprinkling of the concrete 
alone, if done at sufficiently frequent intervals, 
gives the desired protection. 

Mass work, such as foundation and walls, 
can be protected by leaving the forms in place 
and occasionally sprinkling for several days. 

Keep the concrete moist. 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



181 



Tables of Information 



BEARING POWER OF SOILS 



Supporting 

Power in Tons 

per Sq. Ft. 

Rock — in thick layers, in natural bed . . 200 

Clay — in thick beds, always dry 4 

Clay — in thick beds, moderately dry. . 2 

Clay — soft 1 

Gravel and coarse sand, well cemented 8 

Sand — compact and well cemented .... 4 

Sand — clean and dry 2 

Loam soils 0.5 



QUANTITY OF LEHIGH 



1 cu. ft. 


Sacks of 


1 cu. yd. 


Bbls. of 


concrete 


Lehigh cement 


concrete 


Lehigh cement 


1:1:1 


0.5404 


1:1:1 


3.375 


1:1^:3 


0.2808 


1:1#:3 


1.895 


1:2:4 


0.2220 


1:2:4 


1.498 


1:2^:5 


0.1848 


1:2^:5 


1.247 


1:3:6 


0.1570 


1:3:6 


1.060 



COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE 

Strengths given may be expected from concrete made from Lehigh cement and first-class sand and 
coarse aggregate, for concrete which has been well mixed and cured without drying out. 



Mix by volume 


Average compressive strength of 6- by 12-inch cylinders (lbs. per sq. in.) at ages of 


1 month 


3 months 


6 months 


1 year 


1:3:6 
1:2^:5 

1:2:4 
1:2:3 
1:1^:3 


1200 
1600 
2100 
2200 
2600 


1700 

2200 
2700 
2900 
3300 


2000 

2600 
3100 
3300 
3700 


2400 
3000 
3500 
3700 
4100 



MATERIALS REQUIRED FOR 100 SQUARE FEET OF SURFACE FOR VARYING 

THICKNESS OF PLASTER 



Thickness 


Mixture 1 : 1 


Mixture 1 : 2 


Mixture 1 : 2]A 


Mixture 1 : 3 


Lehigh cement 


Sand 


Lehigh 
cement 


Sand 


Lehigh 
cement 


Sand 


Lehigh 
cement 


Sand 


Inches 

K 

X 

1 

IK 
IK 
IK 

2 


Sacks 
2.2 

3.0 

4.5 
6.0 
7.5 
9.0 
10.5 
12.0 


Cu. yd. 

0.08 
0.11 
0.16 
0.22 
0.27 
0.33 
0.39 
0.45 


Sacks 

1.5 
2.0 
2.9 
3.9 
4.9 
5.9 
6.9 
7.9 


Cu. yd. 

0.11 
0.15 
0.22 
0.29 
0.36 
0.43 
0.50 
0.58 


Sacks 

1.3 
1.7 
2.5 
3.3 
4.2 
5.1 
6.0 
6.9 


Cu. yd. 

0.12 
0.16 
0.23 
0.31 
0.39 
0.47 
0.56 
0.64 


Sacks 
1.1 

1.5 
2.2 
3.0 
3.7 
4.5 
5.4 
6.2 


Cu. yd. 
0.13 
0.17 
0.25 
0.33 
0.41 
0.50 
0.60 
0.69 



If hydrated lime is used, it should be added in amounts of from 5 to 10 per cent, by weight of the cement. 
Hair is used in the scratch coat only in amounts of A bushel to 1 sack of cement. 
These figures may vary 10 per cent, in either direction, due to the character of the sand. 
No allowance is made for waste. 



NUMBER OF SQUARE FEET OF WALL SURFACE COVERED PER SACK OF LEHIGH CEMENT, 
FOR DIFFERENT PROPORTIONS AND VARYING THICKNESS OF PLASTERING 





Materials 


Total thickness of plaster 


Propor- 
tions of 
mixture 


Sacks 
Lehigh 
cement 


Cu. ft. 
sand 


Bushels 
hair* 


yi in. 


3 A in. 


1 in. 


IK in. 


IK in. 


Sq. ft. 
covered 


Sq. ft. 
covered 


Sq. ft. 
covered 


Sq. ft. 
covered 


Sq. ft. 
covered 


1:1 

1:1K 
1:2 

1:2K 
1:3 




1 

IK 

2 

2K 
3 


A 
A 
A 
A 
A 


33.0 
42.0 
50.4 
59.4 
67.8 


22.0 
28.0 
33.6 
39.6 

45.2 


16.5 
21.0 
25.2 
29.7 
33.9 


13.2 
16.0 
20.1 
23.7 
27.1 


11.0 

14.0 
16.8 
19.8 
21.6 



* Used in scratch coat only. 
Note. — These figures are based on average conditions, and may vary 10 per cent, either way, according to the quality of the sand used. 
No allowance is made for waste. 



182 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



AREA DRAINED BY TILE MAINS 











Fall per 


tOO Feet 








Size 


















of 


IK In. 


2H In. 


3H In. 


4K In. 


6 In. 


9 In. 


12 In. 


24 In. 


Tile 


or 0.1 


or 0.2 


or 0.3 


or 0.4 


or 0.5 


or 


or 1.0 


or 2.0 




Ft. 


Ft. 


Ft. 


Ft. 


Ft. 


0.75 Pt. 


Ft. 


Ft. 


Inches 


Acres 


Acres 


Acres 


Acres 


Acres 


Acres 


Acres 


Acres 


4 


3 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


13 


18 


5 


7 


10 


12 


14 


15 


19 


23 


32 


6 


12 


17 


21 


24 


27 


33 


38 


55 


8 


26 


37 


45 


60 


74 


85 


106 


125 


10 


50 


70 


85 


100 


110 


140 


195 


225 


12 


86 


118 


145 


165 


175 


230 


265 


380 


15 


152 


215 


270 


310 


355 


430 


500 


720 


18 


250 


360 


440 


515 


575 


720 


820 


1150 



QUANTITIES OF MATERIALS REQUIRED FOR LINEAR FOOT OF CONCRETE PAVING FOR THE 
WIDTHS AND THICKNESSES AT SIDES AND CENTER AS LISTED 



Width 


Thickness Side 
and Center 


Lehigh Cement (bbl.) 


Sand (cu. yd.) 


Rock or Pebbles (cu. yd.) 


1:2:3 


1:1M:3 


1:2:3 


1: l,'i:3 


1:2:3 


1:1K:3 


Feet 

9 

16 
18 
20 
24 


Inches 

6-7 
6-8 
6-8 
6-8 K 
6-9 


0.32 
0.63 
0.71 
0.82 
1.01 


0.35 
0.68 
0.77 
0.90 
1.10 


0.10 
0.19 
0.21 
0.24 
0.30 


0.08 
0.15 
0.17 

0.20 
0.24 


0.14 

0.28 
0.32 
0.36 
0.45 


0.16 
0.30 
0.34 
0.40 
0.49 



Quantities based on the assumption of 45 per cent, voids in the coarse aggregate. 



MATERIALS REQUIRED FOR 100 SQUARE FEET OF SURFACE OF VARYING 

THICKNESS 







Thickness 1 Inch 


Thickness 2 Inches 


Thickness 4 Inches 


Thickness 5 Inches 




Lehigh 
Cement 


Sand 


Stone 


Lehigh 
Cement 


Sand 


Stone 


Lehigh 
Cement 


Sand 


Stone 


Lehigh 
Cement 


Sand 


Stone 


1:2 


3.9 


0.29 




7.9 


0.58 
















1 


1:1 


4.2 


0.15 





15 


8.3 


0.31 


0.31 














1 


\:\Yz 


3.7 


0.14 





20 


7.3 


0.27 


0.41 














1 


1^:2^ 


2.6 


0.14 





24 


5.1 


0.28 


0.47 














1 


1^:3 
















9.4 


0.52 


1.04 


11.7 


0.65 


1.30 


1 


2:3 
















8.6 


0.64 


0.95 


10.8 


0.80 


1.19 


1 


2:4 
















7.4 


0.55 


1.10 


9.3 


0.69 


1.37 


1 


2>^:4 
















6.9 


0.64 


1.02 


8.6 


0.80 


1.27 


1 


2}4:5 
















6.2 


0.57 


1.14 


7.7 


0.72 


1.43 


1 


3:6 
















5.2 


0.58 


1.16 


6.5 


0.73 


1.45 





Thk 


:kness 6 Inches 


Thickness 7 Inches 


Thickness 8 Inches 


Thickness 9 Inches 




Lehigh 
Cement 


Sand 


Stone 


Lehigh 
Cement 


Sand 


Stone 


Lehigh 
Cement 


Sand 


Stone 


Lehigh 
Cement 


Sand 


Stone 


1:1^:3 


14.0 


0.78 


1.56 


16.4 


0.91 


1.82 


18.7 


1.04 


2.08 


21.1 


1.17 


2.34 


1:2:3 


12.9 


0.95 


1.43 


15.0 


1.11 


1.67 


17.2 


1.27 


1.90 


19.3 


1.43 


2.14 


1:2:4 


11.1 


0.82 


1.64 


12.9 


0.96 


1.92 


14.8 


1.10 


2.19 


16.7 


1.23 


2.47 


1:2#:4 


10.3 


0.95 


1.53 


12.0 


1.11 


1.78 


13.8 


1.27 


2.03 


15.5 


1.43 


2.29 


1:2#:5 


9.2 


0.86 


1.72 


10.8 


1.00 


2.00 


12.3 


1.14 


2.29 


13.9 


1.29 


2.57 


1:3:6 


7.9 


0.87 


1.74 


9.2 


1.02 


2.03 


10.5 


1.16 


2.32 


11.8 


1.31 


2.61 



Note. — Quantities expressed in the following units: Cement — sacks; sand — cubic yards; pebbles or broken stone — cubic yards. 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



183 



MATERIALS REQUIRED FOR 100 SQUARE FEET OF SIDEWALKS AND FLOORS 

OF VARYING THICKNESSES 





Concrete base 


Thickness 


Mixture 1:2 


:3 


Mixture 1:2 


4 


Mixture 1:2' 


1:4 


Mixture 1:2^:5 




Lehigh 
cement 


Sand 


Stone 


Lehigh 
cement 


Sand 


Stone 


Lehigh 
cement 


Sand 


Stone 


Lehigh 
cement 


Sand 


Stone 


Inches 


























2K 


5.4 


0.40 


0.60 


4.6 


0.34 


0.68 


4.3 


0.40 


0.63 


3.9 


0.36 


0.72 


3 


6.5 


0.48 


0.72 


5.6 


0.41 


0.82 


5.2 


0.48 


0.77 


4.6 


0.43 


0.86 


sy 2 


7.5 


0.56 


0.84 


6.5 


0.48 


0.96 


6.0 


0.56 


0.89 


5.4 


0.50 


1.00 


4 


8.6 


0.64 


0.95 


7.4 


0.55 


1.10 


6.9 


0.64 


1.02 


6.2 


0.57 


1.14 


4^ 


9.7 


0.72 


1.07 


8.3 


0.62 


1.23 


7.7 


0.72 


1.14 


6.9 


0.64 


1.28 


5 


10.8 


0.80 


1.19 


9.3 


0.69 


1.37 


8.6 


0.80 


1.27 


7.7 


0.71 


1.43 


sy 2 


11.8 


0.88 


1.31 


10.2 


0.76 


1.50 


9.5 


0.87 


1.40 


8.5 


0.78 


1.57 


6 


12.9 


0.96 


1.43 


11.1 


0.82 


1.64 


10.3 


0.95 


1.53 


9.2 


0.86 


1.72 



TOP FINISH FOR SIDEWALKS AND FLOORS 





Mixture 1 : 1 


Mixture 1: IK 


Mixture 1 : 2 




Lehigh cement 


Sand 


Lehigh cement 


Sand 


Lehigh cement 


Sand 


Inches 

H 

X 

l 

IX 

2 


3.0 
4.5 
6.0 
7.5 
9.0 
10.5 
12.0 


0.11 
0.16 
0.22 
0.27 
0.33 
0.39 
0.45 


2.4 
3.6 
4.8 
6.0 

7.2 
8.4 
9.6 


0.13 
0.19 
0.26 
0.33 
0.40 
0.46 
0.53 


2.0 
2.9 

3.9 
4.9 
5.9 
6.9 
7.9 


0.15 
0.22 
0.29 
0.36 
0.43 
0.50 
0.58 



Note. — Quantities expressed in the following units: Cement — sacks; sand — cubic yards; pebbles or broken stone — cubic yards. 



MIXTURES FOR BODY OF CONCRETE BLOCK 



Proportions for 
body of block 


Cu. ft. of sand and stone per bbl. 
of Lehigh cement 


Quantities of materials necessary 
for 1 cu. yd. of concrete 


Quantities of materials necessary 
for one hundred 8" x 8"x 16" stan- 
dard concrete block, allowing 33 
per cent for air chambers 




Bbl. of 
Lehigh 
cement 


Cu. ft. 
sand 


Cu. ft. 
stone 


Bbl. of 
Lehigh 
cement 


Cu. yd. 
sand 


Cu. yd. 
stone 


Bbl. of 
Lehigh 
cement 


Cu. yd. 
sand 


Cu. yd. 
stone 


1:2:4 
1:2^:4 
1:2^:5 
1:3 


1 
1 
1 
1 


8 

10 
10 
12 


16 
16 
20 


1.5l" 
1.39 
1.24 
2.25 


0.45 
0.51 
0.46 
1.00 


0.89 
0.82 
0.92 


2.20 
2.04 
1.81 
3.30 


0.66 
0.75 
0.68 
1.46 


1.30 
1.20 
1.35 



MIXTURES FOR FACING OF CONCRETE BLOCK 



Proportions 
for facing 


Cu. ft. of sand per bbl. of 
Lehigh cement 


Quantities of materials necessary for 
1 cu. yd. of concrete 


Quantities of materials necessary for 
one hundred 8" x 8" x 16" standard block 


Bbl. of Lehigh 
cement 


Cu. ft. of sand 


Bbls. of Lehigh 
cement 


Cu. ft. of sand 


Bbl. of Lehigh 
cement 


Cu. ft. of sand 


*1:1K 

*1:2 


1 
1 


6 

8 


3.86 

3.10 


23.2 
25.1 


0.53 
0.43 


3.20 
3.45 



* Based on facing used in surface layer yi" thick. 



184 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



Estimating Tables and Examples of Use 



FOR convenience, concrete is usually mixed 
in batches. The first column shows the 
indicated mix. Columns two, three, and four 
give the proportions in terms of sacks and 
cubic feet. The fifth and sixth columns show 
the quantity of mortar and concrete resulting 



from the various mixtures made in batches, 
each containing one sack of Lehigh cement. 
The last three columns give the quantities 
of materials necessary to produce one cubic 
yard of mortar and concrete of different pro- 
portions. 



QUANTITIES OF MATERIALS 





Materials 


Quantities from 
One-Sack Batches 


Quantities for 1 Cu. Yd. of Mixed Material 


Mixtures 


Lehigh 
Cement 
in Sacks 


Sand 


Pebbles 
or Stone 


Mortar 


Concrete 


Lehigh 
Cement 
in Sacks 


Sand 


Pebbles 
or Stone 


i : \yi 

1 :2 

1 : 3 
1:1^:3 

1:2:3 
1:2:4 
1 :2^:4 
1 : 2^:5 
1:3:5 
1:3:6 




Cu. ft. 

1.5 
2.0 
3.0 
1.5 
2.0 
2.0 
2.5 
2.5 
3.0 
3.0 


Cu. ft. 

3 
3 
4 
4 
5 
5 
6 


1. 
2. 

2. 


75 
1 

8 


3.5 

3.9 

4.5 
4.8 
5.4 
5.8 
6.4 


15.5 
12.8 
9.6 
7.6 
7.0 
6.0 
5.6 
5.0 
4.6 
4.2 


Cu. ft. 

23.2 
25.6 
28.8 
11.4 
14.0 
12.0 
14.0 
12.5 
13.8 
12.6 


Cu. ft. 

22^8 
21.0 
24.0 
22.4 
25.0 
23.0 
25.2 



Example I. — How much cement, sand, and pebbles 
will be required to build a feeding floor 30 by 24 feet, 
5 inches thick? 

Multiplying the area (30 by 24) by the thickness in 
feet gives 300 cubic feet, and dividing this by 27 gives 
W\ cubic yards as the required volume of concrete. 
A one-course floor should be of 1:2:3 mixture. The 
table shows that each cubic yard of this mixture re- 
quired 7 sacks of cement, 14 cubic feet of sand, and 21 
cubic feet of gravel or stone. Multiplying these quan- 
tities by the number of cubic yards required (11^) gives 
the quantities of material required (eliminating frac- 
tions) as 78 sacks of cement, 156 cubic feet of sand, and 
233 cubic feet of pebbles or stone. As there are 4 sacks 
of cement in a barrel, and 27 cubic feet of sand or 
pebbles in a cubic yard, we shall need a little less than 
20 barrels of cement, 6 cubic yards of sand, and 9 cubic 
yards of pebbles or stone. 

Example II. — How many fence posts 3 by 3 inches 
at the top, 5 by 5 inches at the bottom, and 7 feet long 
can be made from 1 sack of cement? How much sand 
and pebbles will be needed? 

Fence posts should be of a 1:2:3 mixture. The 
table shows the volume of a one-sack batch of this 
mixture to be 3 T % cubic feet. The volume of 1 concrete 
post, found by multiplying the length by the average 
width and breadth in feet (7 by J^ by ]/£), is | cubic 
foot. By dividing 3 T \ by y we find that 5 posts can be 
made from 1 sack of cement when mixed with 2 cubic 
feet of sand and 3 cubic feet of pebbles. 

Example III. — What quantities of cement, sand, 
and pebbles are necessary to make 100 unfaced concrete 
blocks, each 8 by 8 by 16 inches? 



The product of height, width, and thickness, all in 
feet (% by % by -f), gives |f cubic foot as the contents 
of a solid block. As the air space is usually estimated 
as 33J/<3 per cent, the volume of concrete in one hollow 
block will be %, or \j or ff cubic foot; in 100 blocks the 
volume of concrete will be • i |-J- a or $9}4 cubic feet, 
which, being divided by 27, gives a little less than \}4 
cubic yards. Unfaced concrete block should be of 
1 : 2^2 : 4 mixture. The table shows that each cubic 
yard of this mixture requires 5 T B (j sacks of cement, 
14 cubic feet of sand, and 22 T 4 „ cubic feet of pebbles. 
Multiplying these quantities by the number of cubic 
yards required (lyi) gives the quantities of material 
required as 8| sacks of cement, 21 cubic feet of sand, 
and 33f cubic feet of gravel. 

Example IV. — How many six-foot hog troughs 12 
inches wide and 10 inches high can be made from 1 
barrel of cement? 

Use a 1:2:3 mixture. The table shows the volume 
of a one-sack batch of this mixture to be 3j 9 o cubic 
feet. As there are 4 sacks in 1 barrel, a barrel of ce- 
ment would be sufficient for 4 times 3 T 9 o, or 15 T % cubic 
feet of concrete. The product of the 3 dimensions, all 
in feet, gives the volume of 1 trough as 5 cubic feet. 
However, approximately 30 per cent of this volume is 
in the open water basin or inside of the tank, leaving 3 T 5 o 
cubic feet as the solid contents of concrete in 1 trough. 
Dividing 15i% by 3 T 6 „, we find that 4 troughs (and a 
fraction) can be made from 1 barrel of cement when 
mixed with 8 cubic feet of sand and 12 cubic feet of 
pebbles, the sides to be 3" thick and the bottom 4" thick. 

These examples can be used to advantage in figuring 
other problems. 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 185 



The History of Lehigh Cement 

IN THE early fall of 1897 a dozen far-sighted business men in the city 
of Allentown organized a company to manufacture Portland cement. 
Gen. Harry C. Trexler, himself the leading farmer in Lehigh County 
and a close student of the farmers' problems, was chosen to head the 
new company, and the first mill completed during 1898 was located on 
what was then known as the Weaver Farm, in Lehigh County, Pennsyl- 
vania. This location, in the historic valley of the Lehigh River, caused 
the new company to be called the Lehigh Portland Cement Company — 
a name destined to become known from coast to coast as representing 
the highest standards of cement manufacture and of just and equit- 
able business dealings. 

The demand for Lehigh cement soon exhausted the capacity of the first 
small mill, with its annual production of 200,000 barrels. Accordingly, 
other mills were established from time to time throughout the State, 
until now the company operates eight mills in Pennsylvania alone — three 
at Ormrod, a town near Allentown, named in honor of one of the original 
directors; one at West Coplay; one at Fogelsville; and three at New 
Castle. These eight mills have a combined capacity of 2 1 ,000 barrels a 
day — making as much cement in adayastheoriginalmilldidinamonth. 

The vast agricultural development of the West created a further de- 
mand for Lehigh cement. Following its policy of establishing mills as 
close to the user as practicable, the company added to its facilities from 
time to time to keep pace with this development. Asaresult it now oper- 
ates two mills at Mitchell, Ind., as well as mills at Oglesby, 111., Mason 
City, la., Iola, Kan., Metaline Falls, Wn., and Fordwick, Va. 

By this natural growth a chain of Lehigh mills to-day extends from 
coast to coast, affording the industrial and agricultural districts of the 
country sources of supply close at hand, thus offering a national service 
that merits for Lehigh the designation "The National Cement." 

It is interesting to note that the Lehigh Company, so modestly 
begun and now grown to a great national organization, preserves the 
"family" nature of its ownership. Gen. Trexler still occupies the 
President's chair, and his associate officers are substantially those 
elected at the first meeting of the board. Its steady growth has been 
inspired by careful manufacture, conservative management, and pro- 
gressive salesmanship, and characterized by relationships founded on 
broad principles of mutual respect and understanding. To-day, after 
a quarter-century of constructive service, it is prepared better than ever 
to co-operate, through its great mills and its thousands of dealers, in the 
further development of the nation, and looks forward to the coming 
years with a faith and confidence bred of a readiness to be of ever- 
increasing service to American enterprise. 



186 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 




1 Allentown, Pa. 

2 Chicago, 111. 

3 Spokane, Wn. 

4 Boston, Mass. 

5 New York City , 

6 Philadelphia, Pa 

7 Pittsburgh, Pa. 

8 New Castle, Pa. 



OFFICES 

9 Richmond, Va. 



10 Buffalo, N. Y. 

11 Minneapolis, 

Minn. 

12 Mason City, 

Iowa 

13 Omaha, Neb. 

14 Kansas City, Mo. 



MILLS 

A Ormrod No. 1, Pa. I Fordwick, Va. 



B West Coplay, Pa. 
C Mitchell No. 1, Ind. 
D Ormrod No. 2, Pa. 
E Oglesby, 111. 
F Ormrod No. 3, Pa. 
G Mitchell No. 2, Ind. 
H Fogelsville, Pa. 



J New Castle No. 1, Pa. 
K New Castle No. 2, Pa. 
L Mason City, Iowa 
M New Castle No. 3, Pa. 
N Metaline Falls, Wn. 
O Iola, Kansas 



RAILROADS 



Ormrod 

West Coplay 

Chapman 
Mitchell 

New Castle 



Fordwick 
Metaline \ 
Falls J 



Philadelphia & Reading Rwy. 
Lehigh Valley Railroad 
Central R. R. of New Jersey 
Philadelphia & Reading Rwy. 
Lehigh Valley Railroad 
Central R. R. of New Jersey 
Philadelphia & Reading 

Railway 
Baltimore & Ohio Railroad 
Chicago, Indianapolis & 

Louisville Rwy. 
Baltimore & Ohio Railroad 
Western Allegheny 
Buffalo, Rochester & Pitts- 
burgh Rwy. 
Erie Railroad 
Pittsburgh & Lake Erie 

Railway 
Pennsylvania Company 
Chesapeake & Ohio Rwy. 
Chicago, Milwaukee & St. 
Paul Railway 



Oglesby Chicago & Northwestern Rwy. 
Chicago, Burlington & 

Quincy Railroad 
Chicago, Milwaukee & St. 

Paul Railway 
Chicago, Rock Island & 

Pacific Railway 
Illinois Central Railroad 

Iola Atchison, Topeka & Santa 

Fe Railway 
Missouri, Kansas & Texas 

Railway 
Missouri Pacific Railroad 

Mason City Chicago & Northwestern Rwy. 

Chicago, Great Western 
Railroad 

Chicago, Milwaukee & St. 
Paul Railway 

Chicago, Rock Island & Pa- 
cific Railway 

Minneapolis & St. Louis Rail- 
road 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



187 



A Page 

regates 153, 156 

voids in 154 

Alleys 48, 132 

Alleyways 67, 145 

Approaches 32, 70 

Architectural trimstone 82 

Area drained by tile mains 

(table) 182 

Areas covered per sack of Le- 
high (table) 181 

Arrangement of cattle 145 

Asbestos roofing tile 82, 99 

Asphaltic process of waterproof- 
ing 176 

Automobile garages 6, 97 

tracks 8 

B 

Bandstands 18 

Bank-run gravel 155 

Barn approaches 32, 70 

equipment 34 

floors 34, 66 

foundations 9, 27 

interiors 34, 67 

walls 9,27 

Barns 27,34, 145 

Barnyards 27 

Barrel of cement 157 

Bars, reinforcing 168 

Bearing power of soil 57, 181 

Benches 76, 80 

Bins and elevators 46, 93, 198 

Blast furnace slag 154 

Blocks, body (table) 183 

concrete 76 

facing (table) 183 

manufacture of 76 

materials necessary. . . . 183 

Boxes, flower 81 

Bracing forms 57, 163 

Bricks, concrete 76 

Bridges and culverts 53, 150 

Bubbling fountains 16 

Building out rats 63 

Bush hammering 90, 176 

C 

Caking of cement in storage . . . 160 

Canals 52 

Cellar hatchways 13 

Cellars, cyclone 101 

fruit 101 

root 101 

storage 101 

vegetable 101 

Cement, Lehigh 3, 157, 185 

mortar 157, 158 

estimating examples . . 181 

quantity tables 181 

storage 160 



Index 

Page 

Centering 163 

Chicken houses 40, 121 

Cinders as aggregate 139 

Circular molds 167 

Cisterns 112 

Civic improvements 18 

Clean aggregates 153 

Cleaning forms 163 

Cleansing sand 153 

Clothespoles 92 

Coal bins 148 

Coarse aggregate 153 

Cold-frames 25, 72 

Cold weather concreting 178 

Colori metric sand test 155 

Coloring matter 176 

tables 177 

Columns 167 

Compartments 24 

Compressive strength of con- 
crete 168 

Concrete, aggregates 153 

cold weather 178 

compressive strength 

of 168 

curing 174 

definition of 153 

fundamental princi- 
ples of 153-185 

in hot weather 180 

mixtures 156 

products 76 

proportions 157 

reinforcing 168 

roofs 82, 139 

slabs, roof 82, 139 

testing 3, 159 

waterproofing. . . .59, 175 

Containers 24 

Cookers 24 

Cooling tanks 38 

Cores 167 

Corn cribs 131 

Covering capacity of plaster ... 181 

Covers for wells 24, 122 

Cow barns 27, 34, 145 

Cracks, prevention of 176 

repairing 176 

Crossovers and risers 71 

Crushed stone 153 

Culverts and bridges 53 

Curbs, integral 132 

Curing concrete 77, 174 

Cyclone cellars 101 

Cylindrical forms 167 

D 

Dairy barns 34, 108 

concrete in the 38 

houses 38, 108 



Page 
Dampness, prevention of. . .59, 175 

Dams 47 

Definition of aggregates 153 

of cement 153 

of concrete 153 

Deformed bars, reinforcement . 169 
Developing a sheet of reinforce- 
ment 78, 79 

Dipping vats for hogs 129, 130 

Drain tile 23, 76 

Drainage area (tables) 182 

land 23, 76 

Drinking fountains 16 

troughs 41 

Driveways 8, 50 

Duck houses 40 

ponds 40 

Dusting of floors, prevention. . 68 

E 

Elevators and bins 46, 93 

Empty sacks 160 

Enclosure walls 15, 76 

Entrances 14, 18 

Equipment for mixing 161 

Estimating problems 184 

tables and examples 184 

Expanded metal lath 117 

reinforcement. 169 

F 

Farm work houses 104 

Feeding alleys 67 

troughs 37, 126 

Fence posts 14, 76 

rails 84 

Filters 112 

Fine aggregate 153 

Finishes, concrete surface 176 

Fire-resistant aggregates 154 

Floors 64, 183 

barn 67 

feeding 36, 65 

garage 8, 97 

materials per sq. ft. 

(table) 183 

stable 34 

Flower boxes 81 

Footings 57 

Form removal 167, 180 

Forms 58, 163 

Foundations 8, 9, 57 

Fountains 16 

Freezing, prevention of 178 

Frost prevention 178 

Fruit cellars 101 

Fundamental principles. . . . 153-185 

G 

Garage driveways 8 

floors 8 

runway 8 



188 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



Page 

Garages 8 

Garden benches 76, 80 

Gate posts 14, 76 

Grading of aggregates 154 

Grain elevators 46 

Gravel, use of 153 

Greenhouses 25 

Gutters 132 

H 

Hand mixing 161 

Hardness of aggregates 154 

Hatchways 13, 57, 69 

Heating aggregates 178 

trough 94 

Henhouses 40, 121 

Highways 48, 132 

Hog dip 129,130 

feeding floor 36 

raising 36,126 

trough 37, 126 

wallow 37, 126 

Hollow wall construction. . . .62, 76 

Home building 20 

Hotbeds 25,72 

Hothouses 25 

Hot weather concrete 180 

Houses 20 

dairy 38 

dwelling 20 

ice 39, 108 

milk 38 

poultry 40, 121 

smoke- 124 

How Lehigh cement is made. . 3 

Hydrated lime 77, 158 

Hydration 158 

I 

Ice houses 39, 108 

Impurities in aggregates 155 

Industrial driveways 50 

Integral curbs 132 

waterproofing 175 

Irrigating canals 52 

Irrigation 52 

L 

Lamp-posts 17, 76 

Land drainage 23 

rollers 23 

Lath, metal 117 

wood 117 

Lathing 117 

Lawn rollers 23 

Lehigh cement, history 185 

manufacture . . 3 

Lighting standards 17, 76 

Lily-ponds 18, 26, 100 

Lime in concrete 77, 158 

Line fence posts 14, 76 

Linings for wells 24, 122 

List of coloring materials 177 

Location of the mixer 172 

Lumber for forms 163 



Page 
M 

Machine mixing 162 

sheds 104 

Mangers 34,67 

Manufacture of Lehigh cement 3 

Manure pits 32,74 

Masonry, rubble 89 

Material bins 148 

Mesh reinforcement 169 

Metal lath 117 

Milk houses 38, 108 

Mixes, consistency of 159 

Mixing, hand 161 

machine 162 

method of 153 

tools 161 

Mixtures 156 

tables 157 

Molds 163 

Mortar (table) 158 

N 
Nests, poultry 121 

O 

Organic impurities in aggre- 
gates 155 

Ornamental posts 17, 76 

walls 15, 76 

work 17, 76 

P 

Panels, standard form 164 

Pavements 10, 64, 182 

Pebble-dash finish 120 

Pebbles 153 

Pergolas 19 

Piers 47 

Pipe, concrete 76 

Pits for manure 32, 74 

Placing concrete 172 

reinforcement 168 

Plaster 117,158,181 

Plastering mixtures (tables). . . 181 

Ponds, duck 40, 100 

lily- 18, 26, 100 

Pools, swimming 26, 100 

wading 26, 100 

Porch boxes 76 

posts 22, 76 

railings 22, 76 

reinforcement 69 

urns 76 

Posts 14, 17,76,84,92 

Poultry houses 40 

raising 121 

Products 76 

curing 174 

Proportions 156 

of mixtures 156 

tables of 157, 158 

Protection of concrete. 174, 178, 180 
Pump covers 122 



Page 


Quality of aggregates 153 

of water 158 

Quantity of aggregates 153 

of materials 157, 181 

tables for estimating 184 
of water 158 

R 

Rat prevention 63 

Rats, building out 63 

Reinforcement, developing a 

sheet of 78 

Reinforcing 168 

Relining old wells 122 

Removal of circular forms .... 167 

forms 167, 180 

Repairing cracked concrete. ... 176 

Retaining walls 76 

Revealed aggregates 176 

Risers and crossovers 71 

Roads 48, 132 

Rollers, land 23 

lawn 23 

Roof thickness (table) 106 

Roofing tile 82 

Roofs 106, 139 

asbestos, concrete slab . . 82 

forms 106, 139 

Root cellars 101 

Rubble masonry construction . 89 

S 

Sacks, 4=1 barrel 157 

Sand 153 

colorimetric test 155 

Sand boxes 26, 100 

Scales 73 

Selection of aggregates 153 

lumber 163 

materials 153 

Septic tanks 114 

Setting forms 163 

Sewers, pipe 23, 76 

Sidewalks 10, 48, 64, 132 

forms 10, 64, 164 

materials (table) .... 183 

Signposts 17, 76, 84 

Silos 42 

block 136 

monolithic 136 

roof for 139 

stave 136 

tables 137 

walls 42,57, 136 

Size of aggregates 156 

Slump test 159 

Smokehouses 124 

Soil, bearing power (table) .... 181 

Spading 172 

Splicing reinforcement 171 

Spring houses 108 

Stable floors 34 

Stairways 12, 69 



CONCRETE FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY 



189 



Page 

Stalls 34,67 

Standard form sections 58, 164 

Standards, lighting 17, 76, 84 

Stave bins 46 

Staves 42,46, 144, 148 

Steam curing chamber 174 

Steps 12, 69 

Stock troughs 41, 93 

Storage cellars 101 

of cement 160 

of materials 160 

Street markers 17, 76 

Streets 48,132 

Strength, compressive, of con- 
crete 168 

tensile, of concrete. 168 

Structural tile 76 

Stucco finishes 117 

mixtures 117 

tables 181 

Suitable mixes 157 

Surface course 182 

finish 176 

Swimming pools 26, 100 

Sylvester process of waterproof- 
ing 175 

T 

Tables, aggregates, sizes 157 

bearing power of soil . . 181 

coal pockets 149 

estimating 184 

floors 182 

foundation 181 

highways 182 



Page 

Tables, mixes 157 

mortars 158 

proportions 157 

quantity of aggregates . 181 

of water 159 

roads 135 

sidewalks 182 

silos 137 

Tank, dipping 130 

Tanks 93 

septic 114 

water 41, 93 

Tensile strength 168 

Tests, sand 155 

slump 159 

Tile, asbestos 76 

drain 76, 182 

land drainage 23, 76 

roofing 82, 99 

Tool houses 104 

Tooling concrete surfaces 177 

Tools 161 

for concreting 161 

Top finish (table) 183 

surface (table) 183 

Toughness of aggregates 154 

Tracks, garage 8 

Trimstone, architectural 82 

Troughs 37,41,93 

Types of reinforcement 169 

U 

Underground cisterns 112 

septic tanks .... 114 



Page 

Unit forms 58, 163 

V 

Vats, dipping 130 

milk cooling 108 

Vegetable cellars 101 

Void fillers 156 

Voids in aggregates 154, 156 

W 

Wading pools 26, 100 

Walks, surfaces of 10, 64 

Wall footings 57 

forms 58 

Wallows 37,126 

Walls 9, 15, 57 

Warehouse set 160 

Washing floor 6 

platforms 155 

sand 155 

Water glass 176 

Water, storage 47 

quality 158 

quantity 158 

Watering troughs 41, 93 

Waterproofing 59, 175 

Wearing course (table) 182 

Weigh scales 73 

Well covers and linings 24, 123 

platforms 24, 122 

Window boxes 81 

Winter concreting 178 

Wire reinforcing 168 

Work houses 104 



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020 187 488 9 



